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II 



THE ALL RED SERIES 



THE DOMINION 
OF CANADA 



The All Red Series is designed at 
once to quicken the interest of English- 
men in the extension and maintenance 
of the Empire, and to give an account 
of its constituent countries as they 
are to-day — their physical features, 
natural products, commerce, and social 
and political institutions. They are 
intended alike for the immediately 
practical use of emigrants or visitors, 
and for the study of those who stay 
at home. 



Uniform with this volume 

THE COMMONWEALTH OF 
AUSTRALIA 

BY 

The Hon. Bernhard R. Wise 

THE DOMINION OF NEW 
ZEALAND 



Sir Arthur P. Douglas, Bt. 

Other volumes in preparation 




RT. HON. SIR WILFRID LAURIER, P.C, G.C.M.G., D.C.L., 
LL.D., K.C., PREMIER OF THE DOMINION OF CANADA 



THE DOMINION 
OF CANADA 



, BY 

■V A 
W; L" GRIFFITH 

SECRETARY TO THE OFFICE OF THE HIGH COMMISSIONER 
FOR CANADA 



BOSTON 

LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY 
1911 



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TABLE OF CONTENTS 



PART I 

CHAP. 

I, EARLY HISTORY, 1497 . . 

II. CANADA UNDER FRANCE, 1663-1760 

III. FRENCH AND ENGLISH, 1756-1763 

IV. CANADA UNDER BRITISH RULE, 1760-1791 
V. REPRESENTATIVE INSTITUTIONS, 1791-1814 

VI. POLITICAL STRIFE, 1815-1840 

VII. CONFEDERATION 

VIII. THE ERA OF CANADIAN RAILWAYS 

IX. THE Hudson's bay company 

X. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WEST 

XI. THE UNDEVELOPED NORTH . 

XII. BRITISH DIPLOMACY AND CANADA 

XIII. THE DESTINY OF CANADA 



1 

6 
13 
19 
26 
31 
40 
58 
62 
69 
95 
106 
124 



PART II 
PEOPLE AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 

I. THE AMERICAN " INVASION " 
II. THE HABITANT 



. 132 
. 137 



VI • CONTENTS 

CHAP. pA(;r 

III. UNITED EMPIRE LOYALISTS . . . 141 

IV. THE CANADIAN INDIANS . , . . 145 
V. SOCIAL LIFE TO-DAY OF CANADA , . .152 

VI. THE LABOUR ORGANISATIONS OF CANADA . . 162 

VII. THE CHIEF CITIES OF CANADA , . . 178 

VIII. THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL AND THE HIGH COM- 
MISSIONER ...... 189 



PART III 
CONSTITUTIONAL PARLIAMENT, 

I. CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY 
II. THE PARLIAMENT OF CANADA 

III. DEFENCE 

IV. BANKING AND CURRENCY IN BRITISH 

AMERICX .... 

V. CUSTOMS REVENUE AND TAXATION . 

VI. EDUCATION 

VII. TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION . 

VIII. POSTS AND TELEGRAPHS 

IX. THE " ALL RED " ROUTE 

X. AREA AND PHYSICAL FEATURES 

XI. CLIMATE ..... 

XII. CANADIAN SCENERY 

XIII. CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES 



ETC. 



NORTH 



198 
212 
242 



. 257 
. 269 
. 281 
. 301 
. 349 
. 353 
. 357 
. 361 
. 365 
. 369 



CONTENTS Vll 

PART IV 
PRODUCTION, ETC. 

CHAP. PAGE 

I. CANADIAN AGRICULTURE .... 377 

II. ECONOMIC MINERALS OF CANADA . . . 405 

III. Canada's manufactures .... 426 

IV. fisheries . 434 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



THE RT. HON. SIR WILFRID LAURIER 



Frontispiece 



MAIN STREET, PRINCE RUPERT, BRITISH COLUMBIA 

THE PRINCE OF WALES, AFTERWARDS KING EDWARD VII, I 
CANADA ....... 

CHAMPLAIN MARKET, QUEBEC ..... 
A " STONY " SQUAW ...... 

REGATTA NORTH-WEST ARM, HALIFAX 

CHAMPLAIN MARKET, QUEBEC, ANOTHER VIEW . 
VICTORIA MONUMENT, OTTAWA .... 

THE RT. HON. LORD STRATHCONA .... 

AN OX-CART : AN OCCASIONAL SIGHT IN NOVA SCOTIA 

PARLIAMENTARY BUILDINGS, OTTAWA 

LEGISLATIVE BUILDINGS, VICTORIA, BRITISH COLUMBIA 

HAZELTON, BRITISH COLUMBIA ..... 

CONSOLIDATED SCHOOL GARDEN PLOTS, GUELPH, ONTARIO 

VICTORIA BRIDGE, MONTREAL ..... 

HIGH-ROAD BRIDGE, RICHMOND .... 

ON THE PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND RAILWAY 

THE BASILICA, QUEBEC ...... 

FORDING THE GRAND FORKS RIVER, B.C. 

CATTLE BRANDING, WESTERN CANADA 

LOOKING TOWARDS BANFF FROM THE PALLISER RANGE (LAKE 
MINNEWANKA, WEST END) .... 

BRAS d'oR LAKES, CAPE BRETON, NOVA SCOTIA . 

A CANADIAN HAYFIELD ...... 

PEACH ORCHARD, WESTERN ONTARIO 

FISH WHARF, ST. ANDREW'S ..... 

DRYING COD-FISH, ST. JOHN ..... 



FACING 
PAGE 

54 



108 
132 
146 

160 
180 
182 

190 
202 
212 
220 
230 
288 
308 
312 
316 
320 
346 
350 

364 
368 
380 
398 
434 
436 



[From " History of Britain," 1670.] 

Brutus thus addresses Diana in the country of Leogecia :— 
" Goddess of Shades, and Huntress, who at will 
Walk'st on the rowling Sphear and through the deep. 
On thy third Reign the Earth look now, and tell 
What land, what seat of rest thou bid'st me seek. 
What certain seat, where I may worship thee 
For aye, with Temples vow'd and Virgin quires." 

[To whom sleeping before the altar Diana, in a Vision that night 

thus answer'd : — ] 
" Brutus, far to the West, in th' Ocean wide. 
Beyond the Realm of Gaul, a land there lies. 

Sea girt it lies, where Giants dwelt of old, 
Now void, it fits fhy people ; thither bend 
Thy course, there shalt thou find a lasting seat, 
There to thy sons another Troy shall rise, 
And Kings be born of thee, whose dredded might 
Shall aw the World, and conquer nations bold." 

{Fragment from Milton.) 

Oxford Univ. Edition.. 



DOMINION OF CANADA 

PART I 



CHAPTER I 

Early History, 1497 

From the day when Leif the Norseman sailed west in 
his Httle ship with the Dragon's head at the prow, the 
eyes of European adventurers had turned to the West 
for a solution of the mystery of the East. It remained 
for John Cabot, a cosmopolitan merchant, to bring to 
England the first definite news of that land we now call 
■Canada. In searching for the origin of the Eastern 
spices in which he traded, he heard at Mecca of a series 
of caravans by which they came overland— a string 
which seemed to stretch out indefinitely towards the 
east : till the idea occurred to him that if their origin 
were so far to the eastward it might be quicker to 
seek them by sea from the west. So, in the Matthew, 
with eighteen sturdy hands he sailed in May, 1497, 
from Bristol, first north, and then, when Ireland was 
behind him, westward for a month. Passing Newfound- 
land to the starboard hand he first sighted land on St. 
John's Day, June 24th, 1497. This point (the Prima 
Vista) is popularly believed to have been the western 
extremity of Cape Breton, though Labrador and 
Newfoundland have also claimed the title. 

After a quick passage home to announce the discovery, 
and receive his reward— of £10 !— from Henry VII, John 
Cabot with his son Sebastian sailed in the following year 
with five ships ; but no record of results exists, and 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

he disappears unremarked from the pages of history. 
Other discoverers followed quickly, for in 1500 Juan de 
la Cosa's map showed flags with the cross of St. George 
extending from Cape Breton to a point which is probably 
intended for Cape Hatteras. 

In 1501 Gaspar Cortereal ranged over Labrador and 
Newfoundland, and the next landmark in exploration 
was the landing of Jacques Cartier of St. Malo at Blanc 
Sablon — the first landing on Canadian soil — in 1534. 
A year later he was back again, and on August 10th, 
anchored in a small bay opposite Anticosti, which he 
named St. Lawrence — a name which was afterwards 
extended to the whole of the gulf and the river. In the 
same year the explorer ascended the River, landing at 
the Indian to\vns of Stadacona (Quebec) and Hochelaga 
(Montreal). 

During the winter of 1542-3 the Sieur de Roberval 
wintered with a small garrison at Cap Rouge, near 
Quebec ; and then for a time the troubles in France 
which followed the death of Francis I put an end to active 
exploration on any large scale. With the return of peace 
a project for the colonisation of Canada was undertaken 
by the Marquis de la Roche ; but the expedition never 
reached its objective. Sixty convicts were landed on 
Sable Island and were left there without assistance for 
five years. Only twelve survived. 

All this time. Englishmen had not been idle. Fisher- 
men and traders had scoured the seas and eventually 
had made the port of St. John in Newfoundland. In 
1576, Martin Frobisher was daring the ice in the Arctic 
seas for a realisation of his dream of the North-West 
Passage to Cathay. In 1579 Sir Francis Drake took 
possession of the Pacific Coast, and named the country 
New Albion. John Davis discovered the Davis Straits 
in 1585, and in the two following years made voyages 
to Arctic Canada. The fur-trade, too, had become an 



THE FIRST LANDING 

important one. Trappers and traders were meeting, 
and news from inland was borne by the ships back to 
their home ports. 

The new epoch — the epoch of colonisation — began 
with the year 1603 when Samuel Champlain, a native 
of Brouage, in the Bay of Biscay, sailed under Pontgrave, 
a rich Breton merchant, with two vessels on a voyage 
of commerce and settlement. The voyage extended 
up the St. Lawrence as far as the Lachine Rapids. On 
the return of the explorers to France, a new company was 
formed immediately, headed by Sieur de Monts and Pierre 
du Guast, the Governor of Pons. Its objective was to 
explore the indefinite region known in the King's com- 
mission to de Monts as " La Cadie."^ This is the first 
record of that Acadia which was to become for the next 
century a battle-ground where French and English were 
to fight long and bitterly for possession. 

The new expedition sailed in April, 1604. Two months 
later they sighted Nova Scotia, sailed up the Bay of 
Fundy to the harbour which we now know as Annapolis, 
but which de Monts called Port Royal, " the most 
commodious and pleasant place we have yet seen in this 
country." . At the head of the bay the expedition came 
to a river which falls into Passamaquoddy Bay — the 
river Sainte Croix — and on an islet in this stream was 
formed the first French settlement on the North East 
Coast of America. 

A very short stay proved the site to be impossible, 
and the adventurers removed to Annopolis, or Port 
Royal, where a permanent settlement was founded. In 
the story of Port Royal, of its abandonment, of its re- 
settlement, of its missionary enterprise, there is abundant 
romance. In spite of court intrigue, in spite of adverse 
influence of all kinds, the little colony struggled on. An 
expedition was even sent to extend the borders to the 

1 Cadie : from the Micmac, Ahade, " a place of abundance." 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

other side of the Bay, when a stray Enghsh vessel dis- 
covered and destroyed it. This incident, the first breath 
of century-long strife — led to the discovery and des- 
truction of Port Royal by the orders of Sir Thomas 
Dale, the Governor of Virginia. 

While the little colony of Port Royal had been fighting 
for its life the restless spirit of Samuel Champlain drove 
him to lead another expedition of discovery up the St. 
Lawrence River where, in 1608, he founded Quebec, ^ the 
first city of New France. Twenty-eight settlers wintered 
there, and in the following year a garden of maize, 
wheat, barley and vegetables of all kinds was planted. 
In 1609, Champlain joined the Algonquin and Huron 
Indians in an expedition against the Iroquois, and in 
doing so alienated the most powerful race in the country ; 
but with this exception he conducted the affairs with 
sound judgment and a fine diplomacy. 

The record of the next twenty years is occupied in 
accounts of fights with Indians, of explorations among the 
lakes and inland waterways and of missionary enterprise, 
and though much quiet progress was made, no 
outstanding features call for notice. 

In 1627, Canada and Acadie were granted to " The 
Company of New France," or " The Hundred Associates," 
headed by the great Cardinal Richelieu ; and a modified 
form of feudal tenure was established in New France 
with the object of inducing men of good birth and means 
to enter and develop the country. The war between 
France and England hindered the project, and in the 
course of the operations Quebec was captured by the 
Enghsh, only to be returned to France at the end of 
hostilities, In 1635, Champlain — " the Father of New 
France," as he has been rightly called — died. 

Three years later, the Iroquois attacked the Huron 
Indians, and in the course of the war practically 

^ Quebec : from the Indian Kebek, a strait. 



SAMUEL CHAMPLAIN 

exterminated them as a nation ; and between 1642 and 
1667 there were frequent and serious wars between the 
French and the Iroquois Indians, who had never 
forgotten Champlain's expedition. 

Acadie was taken by the Enghsh and restored ; was 
transferred to the Enghsh and again, by the treaty of 
Breda (1667), given back to France. It was a period 
of great activity both in missionary enterprise and in 
exploration. Indeed, the two in many cases went 
hand-in-hand. 

The year 1663 is a landmark in early Canadian history. 
The trading companies were obviously unequal to the 
task of developing the country : the Iroquois Indians 
were virtually masters of the St. Lawrence valley : 
and the white population of the country was afraid to 
leave the protection of the forts. Moreover, they were 
dependent for supplies almost entirely upon the French 
ships. The fate of the country hung in the balance. 
The land groaned for peace. Appeals were made to the 
King of France and, acting on the advice of the great 
Colbert, the young Louis XIV assumed control of New 
France and made it a Royal Province. Soldiers were 
sent to aid .the distressed settlers ; and, led by the Mar- 
quis de Tracy, expeditions forced their way into Iroquois 
country with such good effect that peace was soon made 
between the French and the Five Nations, and the 
distressed colony was free to develop its resources and 
extend its limited borders. The population rose from 
less than 2,000 in 1663 to over 4,000 in 1665, and for the 
first time in its history we read of the immigration of young 
unmarried girls who were destined to be the mothers 
of the early Canadian people. It seemed as though 
the little ship of New France was at last safe in haven. 



2— (2137) 



CHAPTER II 

Canada under France, 1663-1760 

With the advent of Royal authority the company of 
New France collapsed and their successors, the French 
West Indian Company, formed in 1664, acquired many 
of their privileges and monopolies. No enterprise 
undertaken for private gain can ever hope to conduct 
its operations with the impartiality of a benevolent 
State ; and after a life of ten years, in which it did infinite 
harm, the French West Indian Company State-given 
monopoly ceased. 

One of the difficulties which faced the rulers of the 
new country was the difficulty they found in keeping 
the colonists within the settlements. Ensnared by the 
speU of the forests the young men would disappear into 
the unknown, blazing a trail, living a primitive life, and 
pushing ever further into the Beyond. Penalties were 
even instituted to check this efflux, but without avail. 
The coureur du Bois, revelling in his escape from civilisa- 
tion, happy in his solitude, remained the feature of the 
period. 

Among the most noteworthy pioneers of this time 
must be mentioned the men of the Hudson's Bay Com- 
pany. In 1670 a company of English Traders, known 
as " the Honourable Company of Adventurers from 
England trading into Hudson's Bay," received from 
Charles II a royal licence to trade in what was known as 
Prince Rupert's Land. Their first forts were built on 
the shores of the great Bay, and since they were only 
accessible to vessels from Europe during the summer 
months the story of the hardships encountered by the 
Traders is a record of the most stoical and heroic endur- 
ance. Naturally the French of the St. Lawrence Valley 

6 



EARLY STATE OF THE COUNTRY 

looked with indignation at these outposts of England, 
and many of the forts were destroyed by Le Moyne 
d'lberville. But the forts were rebuilt and remained 
for many years the centres of a thriving trade. Indian 
trappers came from great distances to barter furs for the 
excellent provisions and clothing supphed by the Company. 

In the north-west a company of French adventurers 
established themselves and explored westwards, it is 
said, as far as the outlying spurs of the Rocky Mountains ; 
but the wars between France and England came to end 
their enterprise, and the Hudson's Bay Company was 
left for a time supreme.. Later on, towards the end of 
the eighteenth century, a Canadian company of traders 
known as the North- West Company, established itself 
firmly, and the rivalry between the employes of the 
two companies often led to scenes of riot and bloodshed. 

In returning to the general story of Canadian history, 
we come to one of the most famous names in the story 
of New France — the Comte de Frontenac. Appointed 
Governor in 1672, he ruled with an iron hand the variety 
of men under him. So overbearing of all restraint was 
he that at the end of ten years, his enemies at court 
triumphed, and he was recalled to France. He was 
replaced by La Barre, a timid and vacillating governor, 
whose weak policy towards the Indians sacrificed most 
of the prestige which Frontenac 's boldness had gained 
for France. He was quickly replaced by the Marquis 
of Denonville, an officer of Dragoons, in whose administra- 
tion a successful expedition was despatched against the 
Hudson's Bay Company's fortified training posts. 

At this time practically the whole trade of the Cana- 
dians was in direct barter. Very httle money was in the 
country and the people were always poor. In 1685 
and onwards a peculiar currency was introduced, called 
" card-money." Common playing-cards were used, 
which bore the Crown, the Fleur-de-lis, with the amount 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

of the value, and the signature of the official who issued 
them. In course of time the card-money became 
depreciated and worthless, though for nearly a hundred 
years no other currency existed. 

During the winter of 1687 the Governor of Fort 
Frontenac treacherously seized a number of friendly 
Indians who had settled in , neutral villages near by. 
Some he sent to mission-stations, others to the French 
galleys. This the Iroquois never forgave, and one dark 
August night of 1689 a large band descended upon the 
hapless village of Lachine. Two hundred men, women 
and children were butchered, and over a hundred were 
carried away as prisoners. Now, Lachine was on the 
Island of Montreal, under the very nose of the Governor, 
and it was evident that a stronger hand must take the 
reins. So Frontenac was recalled from his retirement 
and resumed with characteristic energy the difficult task 
of governing Canada. His problem was made doubly 
difficult by the growth of English power, both to the 
south of him in New England and to the north in Hudson's 
Bay. War had been declared between France and 
England, an'd one of the schemes he first undertook was an 
attack on New York and Albany by land and sea. This 
was unsuccessful, but in 1690 he organised three expedi- 
tions against the English Colonies which were carried 
out with all the attendant inhumanities which in those 
days were peculiar to frontier warfare with Indian 
auxiliaries. These raids naturally led to reprisals by 
the English, and in the same year Port Royal was taken 
and other ports in Acadia were sacked. An abortive 
and disastrous attempt was made by Sir William Phips 
to take by assault the fortress of Quebec, and the settle- 
ments round Montreal were constantly harassed by the 
English and their Indian aUies. In 1693 and the follow- 
ing years attacks and counter-attacks succeeded one 
another briskly, resulting on the whole in favour of the 

8 



THE TREATY OF UTRECHT 

French ; and so matters stood at the death of the great 
Frontenac in 1698. In 1701 his successor Calh^res 
brought about the earnestly desired peace with the 
Indians, thus opening the trade routes to the west by 
freeing them from the interference of the Iroquois. 

The war of the Spanish Succession, which broke out in 
1702, was mirrored in a fresh outbreak of border warfare 
between New England and Canada. After nine years of 
desultory lighting without tangible results on either side 
(unless the taking of the oft-captured Port Royal be 
counted), a powerful fleet was sent out to attempt the 
conquest of Canada under the command of Sir Hovenden 
Walker, one of the most incapable leaders in the pages 
of English history. After losing eight transports and 
nine hundred men in a storm at the mouth of the St. 
Lawrence, he decided to give up the project of besieging 
Quebec and returned to England without striking a blow. 

What was more important to Canada than all this 
warlike parade was the extension of French settlements 
inland into the valleys of the south and the west. A fort 
had been built opposite the French missionary station 
of St. Ignace on the Strait of Machillimackinac, and it 
was now proposed to make the French headquarters 
at Detroit. This gave the French the key of the great 
lakes and cried check to the English expansion to the 
north and west. Frenchmen were pushing far into the 
valleys of the Illinois and the Wabash. The Mississippi 
was well explored and settlements founded. 

The Treaty of Utrecht (1713) was a sad blow to French 
aspirations by giving to the English possession of Acadia, 
Hudson's Bay and Newfoundland (subject to French 
fishing rights). A clause was included providing that 
the French should never molest the Five Nations under 
the sovereignty of Great Britain. 

During the years following on the Treaty of Utrecht the 
sovereignty of England was very lightly considered 

9 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

by the Home authorities. So hghtly, indeed, that Enghsh 
colonists coming out to settle in Nova Scotia, as Acadia 
will in future be called, had good cause for complaint. 
The only evidence of English possession was the dilapi- 
dated fort at Annapolis with an insignificant garrison, 
whilst emissaries went about amongst the French colonists 
telling of the eventual recovery of the country by the 
French, and fostering racial hatred among the Indians. 
English government was formally established in 1719. 

England, indeed, had her hands full. In 1739 she was 
fighting Spain, Then followed the war of the Austrian 
Succession, and neither of them brought either profit or 
glory to her. The French, on the other hand, were 
making a great parade of their strength in New France. 
In 1720 was begun the building of a huge fort at Louisburg 
on Cape Breton — the lie Royale, as it was called — to 
guard the eastern approach to the St. Lawrence. For 
those days it was an enormous undertaking, and even 
on the modified plan, which had to be adopted for the 
sake of economy, the work cost the equivalent of ^2,000,000 
of modern money. The fortress occupied an area of over 
a hundred acres, and was finely planned for defensive 
purposes. Yet in the spring of 1745, an expedition of 
4,000 English colonists from New England, under Colonel 
Pepperell, besieged, and after forty days captured 
Louisburg, with the assistance of a fleet of thirteen vessels 
under Captain Tyng. By the articles of capitulation the 
garrison and residents — about 2,000 persons — were 
deported to France. Colonel Pepperell received the first 
colonial baronetcy ever created by England. Governor 
Shirley, of Massachusetts, suggested the following up 
of this success by attacks on Montreal and Quebec, but 
the projects were abandoned for want of support at 
home. 

Before the war ended, France made two attempts 
to acquire what she had lost at Cape Breton. In 1746 

10 



CAPTURE OF LOUISBURG 

a fine fleet left La Rochelle but, attacked by the twin 
furies of storm and pestilence, it was checked at Halifax, 
and returned to France with a loss of two or three thousand 
men from disease and other casualties. A second 
expedition sent in the following year was met off Cape 
Finisterre by a superior English fleet and defeated. 

In 1748 England, wearying of the struggle, made peace 
with France and, by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, gave 
back the hardly-won Island of Cape Breton in exchange 
for the commercial port of Madras which had been taken 
by the French in the West Indies. She retained, however, 
Nova Scotia. 

At this time the French explorers were pushing west 
and south with amazing persistence, and fortified places 
had sprung up far beyond the present limits of Canada. 
At Detroit, Sault St. Marie and Mackinac the French held 
possession of the Great Lakes. They claimed exclusive 
rights from the St. Lawrence to the Mississippi, and 
hearing that enterprising Englishmen were pushing along 
the valley of the Ohio, Governor Galissonniere despatched 
an expedition under Captain Celoron to claim the valley 
of the Ohio and its tributaries. This he did by affixing 
the French arms to trees, by burying lead plates along his 
line of route. The English in Virginia were aghast at the 
French incursion into country which they had regarded 
as pecuharly theirs, and the building of an English fort 
was begun at the Fork of the Ohio. This the Frencli 
captured before it was built and completed ; so that by 
1755 the French dominion was complete — so far as any 
dominion could be reckoned complete which is merely 
guarded by a line of scattered forts in a more or less 
hostile country — from the great lakes to the Gulf of 
Mexico, and from the Valley of the Ohio to the Valley of 
the Ilhnois. In Louisiana they had a few towns which 
included New Orleans, Mobile and Biloxi, and the settle- 
ment was managed by the Western Company, a huge 

11 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

speculative enterprise whose failure ruined thousands in 
France. 

Whilst French expansion had been going on ener- 
getically in the south and west, England had begun to 
wake up to the importance of her possessions in America. 
To remedy the diplomatic mistake that had been made 
in giving up Cape Breton, Governor Shirley recommended 
that immigration into Nova Scotia should, be encouraged 
so as to counteract the influence of the strong French 
settlement there. In 1749, therefore — the year in v/hich 
Louisburg was surrendered, — the city of Halifax was 
founded on the west side of the harbour known as 
Chebucto. In 1752 the Halifax Gazette, the first 
newspaper of Canada, was published. 

By the year 1755 the condition of affairs between 
France and England was again nearing one of the crises 
which periodically led to war, and in Nova Scotia the 
tension was particularly acute. The position of Nova 
Scotia, sandwiched between Cape Breton and French 
Canada, was precarious, and in view of the large and 
unfriendly majority of French inhabitants, a decisive 
step was decided on. The French Acadians generally 
had refused to subscribe to the oath of complete allegiance 
to Great Britain, and this was made the excuse for 
Governor Lawrence's action. Men, women and children 
to the number of about 6,000 were expelled from their 
homes and turned adrift in French Canada to find their 
way to food and shelter as best they could. It is quite 
a debatable point if it was the best method of attaining 
the end in view. The end, however, was attained and 
Nova Scotia and New Englanders slept the more peacefully 
when the expulsion was complete. 

Next year, the smouldering embers of war burst forth 
once more, and France began her fight to the death for 
Canada. 



12 



CHAPTER III 

French and English, 1756-1763 

The position of the two nations in America has been 
outhned in the foregoing pages, and before passing on to 
the account of the great war, which was now at hand, 
it may be smumarised in a sentence. French Canadians, 
as we have seen, were pushing down the rivers even as far 
as the Gulf of Mexico ; England round about Hudson's 
Bay held her own ; the west and north-west was a 
no-man's-land where only Indians and fur-traders 
roamed. 

It must be remembered that France was a continental 
nation with ambitious designs in Europe. She gave only 
spasmodic attention to her colonial possessions in 
America, and at no time do the French diplomatists seem 
to have grasped the possibilities of a western empire. 
England, on the other hand, though her diplomacy 
blundered again and again in American affairs, was on 
the whole more alive to the possibilities, and if she neglec- 
ted Canada. her eye was constantly upon the southern 
half of North America. Thus it was that when war 
came, the thirteen English colonies numbered close upon 
one and a quarter million inhabitants exclusive of negroes, 
whilst the total number of French in Canada and Louis- 
iana amounted to no more than 80,000. The condition of 
the English settlers, too, was on the whole more prosperous 
than that of the French. Canadian commerce, never a 
plant of very sturdy growth, had not held up its head 
since the last war. The combined forces of Canadian 
regulars and militia, were generally numerically inferior 
to those of the British and Colonial forces, assisted by a 
powerful fleet. 

In two points only had France the advantage. The 

13 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

natural barriers between the English Colonies and French 
Canada and the admirably chosen defences erected 
around Quebec and Montreal, were an enormous asset ; 
and in the nature of things, the French were acting upon 
interior lines of communication, so greatly appreciated 
by the strategist. To these were to be added the personal 
asset — immeasurably important-r— that for the first part 
of the war, at all events, the French were led by a military 
genius in the person of Montcalm in Quebec, whilst the 
English were handled by incompetents. 

In 1756, then, there came to Quebec a man to whom 
France had entrusted the destinies of the Empire — Louis 
Joseph, Montcalm-Gozon de St. Veran — who became 
known to the world as Marquis de Montcalm. The 
English leader was Earl Loudoun of whom a wit of the 
period observed : " He is like St. George on the Signs : 
always on horseback, but never rides on." This incapable 
arranged a campaign against Lake Champlain and against 
Louisburg which ended in disaster. 

Montcalm acted promptly. The Forts at Oswego, 
facing the French Fort Frontenac in Lake Ontario, were 
attacked and' destroyed ; and a year later Fort William 
Henry was taken. One of those scenes almost insepar- 
able from a war where aborigines are employed marked 
the taking of Fort Wilham Henry, for in spite of Mont- 
calm's efforts numbers of men, women and children were 
butchered in cold blood by the Indian auxiliaries. 

In the same year (1757), a British expedition assembled 
in Halifax Bay, commanded by as fine a pair of bunglers 
as ever led brave men to destruction. Admiral Holburne, 
with fifteen ships of the line and three frigates, and 
Earl Loudoun, with 12,000 men, wasted valuable time, 
whilst Louisburg, their object of attack, was able to 
provide itself with men, food and ammunition. After a 
lapse of some months the English commanders decided 
not to risk an attack. Admiral Holburne, it is true, 

14 



LOUIS JOSEPH, MARQUIS DE MONTCALM 

sailed near to Louisburg in an endeavour to draw out 
the French fleet from beneath the guns of the fort. He 
succeeded only in losing several of his own vessels on 
rocks and shallows, and then set sail for England to 
report his failure. Earl Loudoun returned to New 
York too late to remedy the harm he had done by with- 
drawing so large a force of men from the frontiers of the 
northern provinces, and too late to avert the fall of 
Fort William Henry. So the year 1757 closed with 
the balance of advantage distinctly on the side of 
Montcalm. 

The necessities of the situation were found by William 
Pitt, afterwards Earl of Chatham. The three principal 
instruments he chose to repair the harm which had been 
wrought in the past were General Amherst, Admiral 
Boscawen and Brigadier General Wolfe. General Aber- 
cromby he was forced by political pressure to retain in 
command of a triple scheme of operations by which 
General Forbes was to attack Fort Duquesne ; General 
Abercromby was to make for Crown Point and Ticon- 
deroga ; whilst General Amherst, with an army of 12,000 
men, supported by Admiral Boscawen, with the fleet of 
fifty ships, .was to lay siege to Louisburg, the key of the 
St. Lawrence. 

On June 2nd, 1758, the British fleet anchored near 
Louisburg which, in addition to its garrison of 3,000 
regular troops, was also defended by a fleet of fourteen 
men-of-war carrying over 500 guns and manned by 
nearly 3,000 men. With such energy were the operations 
conducted that on July 26th, 1726, the St. George's Cross 
was hoisted in the citadel. The taking of Louisburg was 
followed by the occupation of the Island of St. John (now 
Prince Edward Island), and the destruction of the French 
settlements round the bays of Gaspe, Miramichi, and 
Chaleurs, together with those in the valley of the St. 
John River. The eleven stands of colours won at 

15 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Louisburg were sent to England and placed in St. Paul's 
Cathedral amid great rejoicings. 

Whilst this victory was being achieved the hapless 
Abercromby had invited disaster on the shores of Lake 
Champlain. With a force of over 14,000 men he had 
attacked recklessly a strongly entrenched position out- 
side the unfinished fort of Carillon defended by Montcalm 
and 3,000 men. But unprovided with artillery, the 
attack was foredoomed to failure, and Abercromby 
retired with heavy loss in the course of the fight. Lord 
Howe, " the best soldier in the British Army," as Wolfe 
described him, fell. Soon afterwards General Abercromby 
was superseded by General Amherst. 

Fort Duquesne, the key of the Ohio valley, was aban- 
doned by the French before the advance of Brigadier 
Forbes ; more important and even more disastrous to 
the French was the capture of Fort Frontenac which 
laid open the way to Montreal from Lake Ontario. 

When the spring of 1759 came to lift the curtain on the 
next act of the great drama the French were in a parlous 
state. The drain of the continuous wars had taken from 
the country most of the agricultural population, it was 
brought to the verge of ruin and, most significant of all, 
the men were losing heart. 

The main positions of defence remaining to them were 
Fort Niagara and the surrounding forts garrisoned by 
about 3,000 men ; a fort on the Ile-aux-Noix and some 
minor positions on Lake Champlain defended by 2,000 
men ; and Quebec, the citadel, with Montcalm and 14,000 
men entrenched for six miles along the northern bank of 
the St. Lawrence. The fortifications of Quebec had been 
improved, but supplies for the troops were deficient, and 
the Governor Vaudreuil was jealous of Montcalm. 

The English plan was that Amherst should advance 
against Montreal by way of Lake Champlain ; Brigadier 
Prideaux and Sir William Johnson were to advance 

16 



SIEGE OF QUEBEC 

against Niagara, and that General Wolfe supported by 
the fleet should attack Quebec, the last, of course, being 
the main objective. 

The EngHsh fleet arrived at Quebec on June 26th, and 
for eleven long weeks the siege was pressed without any- 
notable advantage on either side. Meanwhile Fort 
Niagara had fallen, and the forts on Lake Champlain 
had been abandoned by the French. Amherst, however, 
suffering from excess of caution, was wasting priceless 
time on Lake Champlain, and so driven, Wolfe decided to 
go on with a bold plan which he had formed. 

He managed to assemble without rousing suspicion 
a force of 4,000 men above the citadel of Quebec. On the 
night of September 12th he landed the force in small 
boats at a cove called Anse au Foulon (now Wolfe's 
Cove). From here, a narrow and a zig-zag path led up 
steep cliffs to the Plains of Abraham. So inaccessible 
were the cliffs regarded by the French that security bred 
carelessness, and the English were able to climb the 
almost perpendicular banks practically unopposed. The 
sentinels who challenged were lulled by replies in the 
French tongue, and at six o'clock in the morning the 
astonished .French discovered four thousand British 
soldiers on the heights arrayed in line of battle against 
them. Four hours later Montcalm with a slightly 
superior force was advancing to meet them. The story 
of the fateful battle is well known : the British fire 
reserved till the enemy were within forty yards : the 
flight of the French ; the mortal injury and death of 
Montcalm, and the death of General Wolfe in the moment 
of victory. In Quebec of to-day there stands a monument 
to the joint memory of these heroes. 

General Murray, afterwards the first Governor-General 
of Canada, was given command of the fortress, and spent 
the winter of 1759-60 there. Firewood was scarce, 
many of the buildings were in ruins, and the inhabitants 

17 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

suffered considerably from cold and disease. French 
hopes of recapturing Quebec were dashed to the ground 
by the arrival of a British fleet in the spring of 1760, 
and General de Levis, the Commander of the French, 
retreated on Montreal. 

Then the general British advance began. The forts 
on Lake Champlain were taken, and all the British forces 
converged upon Montreal, and there was no alternative 
for Vaudreuil, the commander, but to capitulate. 

vSo at last, mth the surrender of Montreal, Canada 
passed under British control, and for a time her people 
had peace to work out her own salvation. 



18 



CHAPTER IV 

Canada under British Rule, 1760-1791 

Though Montreal surrendered in 1760, there was a 
delay of nearly three years before the Treaty between 
France and England was ratified. 

By the generous terms of the Treaty of Paris full free- 
dom was granted to the Roman Catholics to follow their 
religion, and the only restriction placed upon the priests 
was that they should abstain from meddling with civil 
affairs and devote themselves purely to their religious 
duties. 

Certain specified fraternities and all communities of 
religieuses were guaranteed possession of their goods and 
privileges ; but the Jesuits, the Franciscans and the 
Sulpicians were not so favoured. 

Canada, with all its dependencies. Cape Breton and the 
Laurentian Isles, was ceded to Great Britain, and the 
French claim to Acadia was renounced. All the country 
east of the Mississippi was ceded, except New Orleans, 
France retained the barren islands of St. Pierre and 
Miquelon, and fishing rights on the coast of Newfound- 
land which, until the recent settlement by Arbitration, 
have proved so prolific a source of annoyance to the 
Newfoundlanders. 

Generally the terms of the treaty were loyally observed ; 
and if here and there a priest or a seignior hoped for the 
time when France should come to her own again, it was 
but human nature ; and since the bulk of the community 
was content but little harm resulted. Less than 300 
persons — and these mostly officials, clergy and officers — 
left Canada. 

It is difficult to-day to realise that in 1760 there was 
more than a little doubt whether or no Canada was worth 

19 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

taking over ; and with the British Government it was for 
some time a question whether to take the httle island of 
Guadeloupe, which exported to England sugar and cotton 
to the exent of half a million sterling, or what was then 
deemed to be the barren waste of Canada, which then 
produced nothing but a few thousand pounds' worth of 
furs. 

There was also another view, the most notable exponent 
of which was Burke. The American colonies, while 
quite loyal, were not too fond of England ; and their 
adherence to the Motherland was largely due to the fact 
that their neighbours in Canada were of the then hated 
French nation. This, then, was the argument : " If 
we accept Canada, and so free the American colonies from 
anxiety, we loosen the ties which bind America to us." 
It was probably a perfectly sound view, and it is interest- 
ing to speculate on the probable course of North American 
history had it prevailed. 

However, in 1763, the Treaty of Paris was signed and 
Canada became British territory. 

It is worth while to survey the boundaries of the 
Canada of l'/63 which Great Britain took over. To Nova 
Scotia, which had for half a century been British, was 
added Cape Breton and, temporarily, Prince Edward 
Island. For the rest, Canada proper was what we under- 
stand as Canada of to-day as far as Lake Superior ; 
the country to the westward being unexplored, and so 
inaccessible in those days as to be unconsidered. To 
this was added the country to the south between the 
Ohio and the Mississippi ; and here was fruitful ground 
for contention in later years. 

In due course the Province of Quebec was delimited 
with borders roughly corresponding to the outlines of 
Quebec and Ontario in modern times. The region to the 
south and west beyond lakes Huron and Eric was a 
wilderness inhabited largely by Indian tribes, garrisoned 

20 



THE RISING IN THE WEST 

by small parties of British soldiers, and administered 
by the British Commander-in-Chief at New York. The 
area it covered is roughly represented to-day by the 
states of Wisconsin, Ohio and Michigan. 

The civilisation of 1760 hugged the river as it does in 
Egypt to-day. Beginning about eighty miles below 
Quebec the settled population of about 70,000 people 
was strung out along the river bank for 170 miles as far 
as Montreal. West of Montreal were virgin forests, 
and unchartered rivers. A few scattered forts made 
pretence of keeping open the line of communication. Here 
and there pioneers and trappers lived out their solitary 
lives. But it was on the St. Lawrence that the hfe of 
Canada was lived. 

For some years Canada was under " the rule of the 
soldiers," as it was called. The province was divided 
into the three districts of Montreal, Quebec and 
Three Rivers, each administered by a military chief. 
General Gage, General Murray, and Colonel Page 
being the respective rulers. By their impartiality 
and their consideration for local prejudices the military 
won the confidence of the people in a surprising 
degree. 

Whilst affairs in the East looked smiling and prosperous, 
the Indians in the West, stirred up by French emissaries, 
suddenly rose, and in 1763 seized a number of forts built 
by the French on the lakes," the Ohio valley and in Illinois. 
Many tribes took part in the rising, though of the impor- 
tant Six Nations only one joined the rebels. But the 
figure which stands out foremost is that of the Chief 
Pontiac : and the war is generally known as Pontiac's 
war. The scattered fighting raged for three years until 
Virginia and Pennsylvania, whose borders had been 
ravaged, sent a strong force under General Bouquet, 
carried the war into the enemies' country, and caught 
the Indians between two fires. 

21 

3— (2137) 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

In the autumn of 1763, George III issued a proclama- 
tion establishing in North America four new governments, 
Quebec, East Florida, West Florida, and Grenada with 
Governors who had the power to summon general 
assemblies. General Murray was the Governor of 
Canada, but since the French population refused to take 
the prescribed oaths, no general assembly was ever 
called, and the country appears to have been managed 
successfully by an executive coimcil appointed by 
Murray. 

The difficulties of the situation lay, curiously enough, 
not in the 80,000 French subjects who worked contentedly 
enough under the new regime, but in two hundred 
British traders who clamoured incessantly for the most 
preposterous privileges. If their demands had been 
carried out they would have been masters of the rest of 
their fellow -subjects. For years a war of petitions and 
counter-petitions was waged, and in the end the English 
malcontents brought about, not the fall of Murray, but 
his recall to explain matters to the British Government 
— and General Carleton was appointed to fill his 
place. 

In 1768 Charlottetown, on Prince Edward Island, was 
founded, and a year later the Island was separated from 
Nova Scotia and made into a separate province with 
Walter Patterson as its first Governor. 

The next event of importance was the passing of the 
Quebec Act of 1774. The Ordinance annexed large 
territories of the Province of Quebec, and provided for 
the appointment by the CrowTi of a legislative council. 
It confirmed to the French residents the free exercise of 
the Roman Catholic religion, and the protection of their 
own civil laws and customs. Labrador, Anticosti, and the 
Magdalen Islands were made part of Quebec. 

The Province of Quebec, therefore, extended to the 
borders of New England, Pennsylvania, New York, 

22 



THE QUEBEC ACT, 1774 

Ohio, and the left bank of the Mississippi, thus causing 
great annoyance in the Enghsh colonies, because it 
limited the expansion to which they felt by right of 
exploration they were entitled. 

That the act was popular amongst the British nation- 
ality in Canada cannot be said. There was a storm of 
protest from the little British colony, and even the Earl 
of Chatham in the House of Lords spoke of it as "a. most 
cruel and odious measure." 

In the years when Canada came under the operation 
of the Quebec Act the thirteen colonies of the south 
were in a state of great • unrest, and in the following 
year the American Revolution broke out. Good King 
George, safe at home, sent a message of cheer to Carleton, 
authorising him to raise an army of 6,000 men, and 
expressing his Majesty's confidence in the loyalty of 
his subjects. But the habitant had had his fill of war, 
and consistently refused to muster ; the British subject 
when he was not openly in league with the enemy was 
often enough in secret correspondence with him. In 
the end Carleton found himself at the head of 800 regulars 
and a handful of loyal French Seigniors and British 
loyalists. Montgomery, sweeping up from the south, 
had taken Montreal without a fight, and General Arnold, 
with a picked force of 1,100 men, was struggling through 
the trackless country to attack Quebec. Of these, nearly 
400 men, after enduring the greatest hardships, turned 
back, the rest, braving the Canadian winter, struggled 
on, but only to find that Carleton was before them in 
Quebec and too strong to be assaulted. 

Quebec, the only unconquered stronghold in the whole 
country, entered again on siege conditions. Carleton 
was the life and soul of the defence, and on the last day 
of 1775, when General Montgomery and Arnold made a 
combined night attack, the defenders beat it off with 
ease. General Montgomery was killed, Arnold was 

23 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

wounded, and the army of invasion so demoralised that 
when in the spring reinforcements arrived from England 
it fled precipitately before the resistless Carleton. The 
country was rapidly cleared of invaders, and on October 
11th of the same year Carleton fought and defeated 
Arnold in a naval engagement at Lake Champlain. 
Soon after this, the command of the troops was given 
to Burgoyne, a greatly inferior leader, but Carleton 
remained Governor-General until 1778, when he retired 
at his own request, and was succeeded by Admiral 
Haldimand. 

The war went badly for England in those days. Bur- 
goyne was defeated at Saratoga ; French men, money, 
and ships, assisted the Revolutionaries ; and the defeat 
sustained by Cornwallis at Yorktown, in 1781, was for 
all practical purposes the end of the war. In 1783 the 
thirteen states were recognised as independent, and the 
boundary line between them and Canada was delimited. 
With the exception of some absurd geographical blunders, 
which were with infinite trouble rectified later, the line 
between the United States and Canada was as it now is. 

Almost urfnoticed in the fog of war was the voyage 
of exploration by Captain Cook in 1778, and he arrived 
at Nootka Sound and claimed the North-West coast 
(British Columbia) as the property of the British 
Crown. 

Soon after the peace of 1783 a fresh element of great 
value was introduced into Canada in the coming of many 
thousands of people from the United States. They were 
known as the United Empire Loyalists — men who had 
sided with England and as a consequence had suffered 
great hardships and no little loss of property by confisca- 
tion during the war. Probably fifty thousand people 
emigrated to Canada in this fashion. Generous grants of 
land were given to many of them. Some settled in 
Nova Scotia, others in the St. John valley and founded 

24 



UNITED EMPIRE LOYALISTS 

the province of New Brunswick ; whilst others, going 
farther afield, helped to make Upper Canada. 

They became a valuable asset to the country, and 
their political influence, guided as it was by deep 
distrust of the United States, has been a factor of 
importance. 



25 



CHAPTER V 

Representative Institutions, 1791-1814 

The time had now come for Canada to emerge from her 
pupilage and receive from the British Crown the con- 
cession of representative institutions for which she was 
prepared. 

By the Constitutional Act of 1791 Canada was divided 
into the two provinces of Upper and Lower Canada. 
Lower Canada, the province of Quebec, had a population 
at this time of something like 140,000, of whom the vast 
majority were of French origin. 

Upper Canada, with a population of perhaps 25,000, 
was preponderatingly British and mostly of Empire 
Loyalist stock. British criminal law was to run in both 
Canadas, but French Civil Procedure was conceded to 
Lower Canada. 

Lord Dorchester, who as General Carleton had been 
notably successful in governing Canada, was installed 
as first Governor-General. In 1792 the first Assembly 
of Lower Canada met in the Bishops' Palace at Quebec, 
and of Upper Canada in the Navy Hall, Newark. Lower 
Canada was divided into twenty-one electoral districts, 
and Upper Canada into twenty-one provinces. Of the 
two houses that of Upper Canada was perhaps the more 
romantically interesting. The peoples' representatives 
were scattered over a huge area of uncultivated country, 
and had laboriously to find their way to Parliament by 
the river, lake and forest track. 

Lieutenant-Governor Simcoe, of Upper Canada, proved 
an able administrator, and devoted his energies to de- 
veloping the resources of the province to the utmost. 
Largely owing to his influence a goodly number of 
immigrants from the United States were attracted, who 

26 



FIRST GOVERNOR-GENERAL 

were, on the whole, good settlers, though they included 
in their ranks a certain number of " undesirables " 
who later were to become a source of trouble. Other 
immigrants of an undeniably useful stock were a number 
of Scottish Highlanders, who founded and settled the 
county of Glengarry. 

It was during this regime that the capital of the 
province was altered from Newark to Toronto (then 
called York) on account of the proximity of the former 
place to the American border. 

As time went on these representative institutions 
developed parties and much heat of party spirit. That 
of Lower Canada was the most restless and intolerant, 
because in Quebec the racial line was very sharply marked, 
and the French majority chafed constantly at their 
impotence in face of the official minority. They demanded 
the right of imposing their own taxes and customs duties ; 
they resented — with reason — the official attitude towards 
the French ; and the frequent interference of the Imperial 
Government in local concerns was a constant source of 
irritation. 

The Assembly of Upper Canada was in the nature of 
things more homogeneous and less antagonistic to the 
official class. In the course of a few years the effect 
of the United States immigration made itself felt in 
the presence of a somewhat antagonistic element, whilst 
in the maritime provinces there was some sparrmg 
between Governor and Assembly. 

There were in the situation the elements of considerable 
pohtical trouble, when danger on the border claimed the 
attention of the whole of Canada, and by setting up a 
keen anxiety provided that tonic influence of a national 
danger which the country needed to save it from internal 
dissension. 

In 1812 Great Britain was engaged in her great fight 
with Napoleon. British warships, supreme upon the 

27 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

seas, were ranging to and fro engaged in commerce 
destruction. In this business many neutral American 
vessels were condemned because their cargoes were not 
made up of home-grown produce, but had been brought 
from an enemy's colony. Furthermore, Britain claimed — 
and exercised — the right to stop American vessels in 
high seas and impress for the Navy any British subject 
found on board, even though he might have been 
naturahsed in the United States. Later came the order 
that forbade American trade with any country hostile 
to Great Britain. 

All this caused great loss and intense irritation in the 
United States, an irritation fanned to flame by the 
Democratic party. In the south and west the Democrats 
had the people with them ; in New England the peace 
party was in the majority. War was declared by the 
United States in June, 1812, and though the objectionable 
shipping orders had by this time been repealed by England, 
still the momentum gained by the war party carried the 
United States army over the border on July 12th into 
British territory. 

Ontario, then Upper Canada, with its small population 
of approximately 80,000, had to bear the full brunt 
of the war. Its defensive resources were small, but the 
rally of its men was magnificent. The material was of 
the finest ; frontiersmen and pioneers all, with a stiffening 
of veterans, who responded eagerly to the call to arms. 
Many had seen service, all were eager to repel an attack 
upon their homes. The legislature seconded the efforts 
of the settlers by voting supplies, and army bills were 
issued to a large amount. 

For the first year of the war Canada was almost 
uniformly successful. Several small engagements were 
followed by the surrender of Detroit, where the Canadians 
took 2,500 prisoners, 33 cannon, and 2,500 stands of 
arms, which together with large quantities of stores, were 

28 



AMERICAN WARS 

a very valuable addition to the Canadian war-chest. In 
October the American troops crossed the Niagara river 
to attack Queenstown ; but after a furious engage- 
ment they were beaten off with a loss of nearly 200 
killed and wounded and 900 prisoners. 

In 1813 the Americans took York (now Toronto) and 
for a time occupied the Canadian shore of the lake. In 
1814 the British army was reinforced with Peninsular 
veterans, who were a most valuable support for the 
Canadian volunteers. Other attacks of Americans were 
repulsed, though the Canadians were driven from Fort 
Erie. Then, in June, occurred the famous battle of 
Lundy's Lane, when 2,800 British repulsed 5,000 Ameri- 
cans. In the following month a British force under 
Major-General Ross defeated a far superior force, with 
the result that Washington was captured and burned in 
retaliation for the burning of York and other towns. 
Roused by the wanton destruction at Washington the 
American army advanced in overwhelming force, before 
which the British retreated. An attempt upon Baltimore 
failed, and the British were defeated at New Orleans with 
great loss. 

At sea there was nothing worthy of record. In the 
early part of the war, the American Navy won several 
small successes ; but the lesson was taken to heart, and 
the British Government sent out a more powerful force, 
till in 1813 and 1814 Enghsh squadrons invaded the 
American coast, the smaller vessels ascending the rivers 
and doing great damage. During the last year of the 
war practically the whole coast was blockaded, with the 
exception of the New England ports which were open to 
neutral vessels. 

When peace was declared by the Treaty of Ghent, on 
December 24th, 1814, both sides were heartily tired of 
war, though indeed it is doubtful if the sober heads on 
either side had ever desired it. Born of intolerance, 

29 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

nursed by southern and western politicians, war and its 
results were quickly forgotten. No definite result was 
arrived at in the Treaty except that the British claim 
to the right of search was practically abandoned, and 
certain privileges in the British North American coast 
granted to American fishermen by the Treaty of 1783 
were withdrawn. 

The one useful result of the war was to draw together 
in a common bond of sympathy all parties in Canada. 
British and French Canadians shared in the honours and 
disasters ; racial differences were forgotten, and it was 
only with the conclusion of peace that politics once more 
regained their ascendency and racial antagonism 
reappeared. 



30 



CHAPTER VI 

Political Strife, 1815-1840 

For twenty-five years after the peace of 1815 Canada 
was plunged in a maelstrom of political strife. The 
constant fight for supremacy between the legislative 
and executive authorities culminated towards the end 
of this period in a series of outbreaks, none of them 
seriously threatening the suzerainty of Britain, but all 
indicating the canker which was eating into the heart of 
the country. " / find," said Lord Durham in his historic 
report, " two nations warring in the bosom of a single 
state ; I find a struggle not of principles, but of races." 
This was particularly true of Lower Canada, where the 
French Canadian majority was supreme in the lower 
house, whilst the English-speaking minority had the ear 
of the government. 

In looking back on that period one may see that there 
was something to be said for and against both parties. 
It is perfectly true that the French Canadian majority 
was unfairly treated, was undoubtedly denied the rights 
which a majority should claim, and the arrogance of 
the British rulers was profoundly irritating to a free 
people. On the other hand, the French Canadian was 
not altogether blameless, and in several notable instances 
they appear to have niisused the power which their 
numbers gave them. 

Mr. Papineau, elected to be Speaker of the Assembly, 
was refused by the Governor-General because of his 
adverse criticism of the former's public work, and when 
the Assembly refused to elect another Speaker, Parliament 
was prorogued and did not meet again until the Governor- 
General was recalled. Lord Dalhousie, it must be said, 
like other Governor-Generals, was constantly thwarted 
and confused by varying and contradictory instructions 

31 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

from home, and he must have welcomed his appointment 
to India as a rehef from the constant strife and anxiety 
of Canada. 

This constant friction between legislative and executive 
culminated at last in absolute deadlock. Checked in its 
fight for complete independence and control of supply the 
Assembly refused to vote even, necessary expenditures, 
with the result that all sorts of shifts were resorted to by 
the government to raise money for its routine business. 
The. legislatures were dissolved, were re-elected, and 
were dissolved again with astounding frequency ; there 
was a constant war of appeals and counter-appeals to 
the home government, the public officials were obliged to 
side with one party or another, and even then were 
continually harassed by impeachments of their work. 
The situation was grievous enough, but was accentuated 
by the fact that the home government failed to grasp the 
gravity of the situation. In 1834 ninety-two resolutions 
were drawn up by the Papineau party setting forth their 
grievances, and in 1835 a commission was appointed to 
inquire into the nature of these grievances and their 
remedy. The Governor-General, Lord Gasford, was at 
the head of this commission, but Papineau and his party 
remained unappeased. In 1837 the deadlock of supply 
continued, and there were arrears of £150,000 sterling. 
It was with this deficit in his mind that Lord John 
Russell, in the House of Commons, carried his resolutions 
refusing the Canadian demand for an elective legislative 
council, and the other constitutional changes desired by 
the French Canadians. The resolutions empowered the 
executive government to pay the cost of public services 
out of such casual revenues as they might be able to lay 
their hands upon. It need hardly be said that the 
passing of these high-handed resolutions created a storm 
of anger in Lower Canada. 

Before passing to the disturbances which arose in 

32 



DISCORD IN THE ASSEMBLY 

Lower Canada it will be well to glance at the other parts 
of the country. In the maritime provinces there were 
the same disputes between the executive and legislative 
authorities, but in the end the pubhc needs prevailed, 
and the revenues were voted. In Upper Canada the 
class to which we have already referred, the " Family 
Compact," as it was called, still held control of the 
province. The professional and military classes formed, 
as it were, an offensive and defensive political alliance 
against the incursions of democracy. Governor after 
Governor, coming out with an open mind to the province, 
fell under the sway of the " Family Compact," and 
pubhc lands were freely bestowed upon the members. 
Towards 1820 the rays of discontent were focussed 
upon a cause sufficiently trivial in itself. Robert 
Gourlay, a land-agent, turned political champion, ex- 
posed some of the inequalities of the land monopoly. 
Declared by the government a dangerous person he was 
tried on two occasions for libelling them, but each time 
was acquitted. Failing in these attempts his enemies 
conspired to accuse him of sedition ; he was imprisoned 
for seven months, and when at last he was tried and 
sentenced to banishment the poor feUow was completely 
broken down by the hardships of prison life. 

The Clergy Reserves dispute between the Episco- 
pahans and the Dissenters was centred round large tracts 
of land which had been granted to the English Church 
by the Act of 1791, and the Dissenters banded themselves 
together to excite their followers by refusing the revenues 
demanded by the Church. 

It must be remembered that it was not until 1829 
that Methodist ministers were officially recognised. 
Those of the Church of England only were allowed to 
solemnize marriage. Where all were in earnest and 
many were bigoted it is difficult to pick out the leaders of 
the movement, but among the " Family Compact " can 

33 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

be numbered John Strachan, first bishop of Upper 
Canada, Beverly Robinson, first Attorney-General and 
later Chief Justice, Jonas Jones, and many another whose 
name has long since been forgotten. On the other side 
was William Lyon Mackenzie, the journalist, who was 
expelled five times from the Assembly for libellous state- 
ments and re-elected five times by the people who resented 
his treatment ; Robert Baldwin and Egerton Ryerson 
were reformers of a more prudent type. Papineau has 
already been mentioned as a strenuous reformer. Dr. 
Wolfred Nelson, a descendant of Loyalists, left his 
class to fight on the side of the reformers, and, on the 
other hand, John Neilson, who had a strong sympathy 
with the French Canadians, was sufficiently cool-headed 
to see that the reign of the " Family Compact " was 
better than disruption. 

The, crisis came with the appointment of Sir Francis 
Bond Head, who, refusing all advice from the moderate 
party, sided openly with the reformers, and threw all 
the weight of His office on their side in the elections of 
1836, with the result that all the leading men of the 
extreme reformers were rejected. 

The man of the hour in Lower Canada was Papineau. 
Hij-^ ; Public meetings and declamatory speeches in the Montreal 
and Richelieu districts were followed by strikes, and one 
finds in some of the speeches used at that day phrases 
reminiscent of the French Revolution. " Sons of Liberty " 
and " patriots " were the titles adopted. At meetings 
the reformers were " brothers," and they received 
" caps of liberty." But perhaps luckily for Lower Canada 
and for the whole Dominion the extreme reformers, though 
active, were few in numbers. The bishops of the Roman 
Catholic Church were against them, and the great body 
of French Canadians refused to do more than grumble. 
Sir John Colborne was taken from Upper Canada to 
command the British troops, and by prompt action he 

34 



IN LOWER AND UPPER CANADA 

nipped rebellion in the bud. A small body of rebels 
under Dr. Wolf red Nelson was defeated at St. Denis, 
and under Thomas Storrow Brown another small body 
at St. Charles met the same fate. Sporadic outbreaks 
occurred here and there, but before they gained any hold 
were stamped out — in many cases it is to be feared with 
considerable brutality. An occasion of this kind was 
too good to be missed by our neighbours on the Ameri- 
can border, and a good deal of purposeless fighting 
occurred along the frontier until the United States 
Government took the matter firmly in hand and arrested 
some of the leaders. Upper Canada, denuded of troops, 
was thus at the mercy of the rebels, but luckily they 
were more earnest than clever, and they were arrested. 
Such leaders as escaped left for the United States, and, 
secure in the protection of American unfriendliness to 
Canada, continued their agitation on the other side of 
the border. As a result an island just above Niagara 
Falls was seized as the basis of operations. A steamer, 
the Caroline, was plying between the island and the 
mainland with supplies, and a Canadian expedition was 
sent to seize her. She was found to be on the American 
shore, but the Canadians nevertheless seized, set fire to 
her, and sent her adrift over the Falls. 

This was only one typical instance of the petty annoy- 
ances which distracted the frontier for the next few years, 
and if so discouraging a thing as rebellion can be said to 
have a good result, it may be claimed that these outbreaks 
had this merit, that they broke up the " Family Compact" 
and brought about reforms which otherwise certainly 
would have been delayed for many years. A further 
good result was the awakening of the Imperial Govern- 
ment and the despatch of Lord Durham as Governor- 
General and High Commissioner of Canada to inquire 
into the condition of the country, and to report on the 
state of affairs. 

35 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Very few people in 1837 realised that the type of 
autocratic statesmanship which had been used for 
governing British possessions was passing away, to give 
place to the diplomacy which encourages nations to 
govern themselves. Lord Durham, whose life had been 
spent in the fight for representive government in England, 
saw at once that the Canadian constitution was incapable 
of holding together a population held apart by long 
distances, divided by political strife, and harassed by 
the arrogance of an autocratic minority. 

Lord Durham's report on the state of Canada is without 
doubt one of the most important State Papers in existence, 
and it is not too much to say that its appearance advanced, 
as its subsequent effect has maintained, Canadian progress 
more than anything that had gone before in the history 
of the Dominion. The keynote of the report is to be 
found in the following passage : "I expected to find a 
contest between a government and a people. I found 
two nations warring in the bosom of a single state : I 
found the striaggle, not of principles, but of races, and I 
perceived that it would be idle to attempt any ameliora- 
tion of the laws or institutions until we could first succeed 
in terminating the deadly animosity that now separates 
the inhabitants of Lower Canada into the hostile divisions 
of French and English." 

Here was the true Imperial note. Another passage, 
quite as pregnant with wisdom, referred to the control 
exercised by ignorant Downing Street and the permanent 
officials there. At this system Lord Durham's report 
strikes hard, for it was not so much the figure-head of 
the administration who was to blame, though he was 
too often ignorant to the last degree of his responsibihties 
to the colonies, but the permanent officials, men of family, 
men of influence, but rarely men of keen and practical 
intelligence, who out of the depths of their ignorance 
dealt with the destines of a continent. 

36 



LORD DURHAM'S GOVERNMENT 

It is true that Lord Durham's government lasted only 
for little over five months, between the end of May and 
the beginning of November, 1838, and in that five months 
his ordinances sentencing certain British subjects to 
transportation without trial was extremely repugnant 
to the British sense of justice. On the other hand, his 
report was in the highest degree statesmanlike, and did 
much to clear away the cloud of misunderstanding which 
hung over the country. 

The offensive ordinance pronounced sentence of 
transportation on Wolfred Nelson, Bouchette, Viger and 
five others in prison, and Papineau, Cartier, and other 
refugees over the border were threatened with death 
if they ever re-entered the country. 

After the departure of Lord Durham, Sir John Colborne 
became Governor-General. Upon his advice the govern- 
ment decided to stiffen their policy with regard to rebels, 
and twelve were executed whilst others were driven 
across the border. 

As an immediate result of Lord Durham's report the 
Imperial Act of Union was passed, re-uniting the provinces 
into one with a legislature of two houses. The two 
provinces were given equal representation in one legisla- 
ture, a larger measure of self-government was granted, 
and an effort was made to bring together the two races 
so far as possible. 

A part of the Act which caused considerable heart- 
burning in the French portions of the community was 
the placing of the EngHsh language in a position of 
superiority in Parliamentary and official proceedings. 

With the Act of Union the drum and trumpet history 
of Canada ceases, and after 1840 the student of affairs 
must occupy himself with a more humdrum record ; 
humdrum only in the sense that the actual clash of 
arms does not sound, but vitally interesting in that 
it is a record of steady growth and progress, checked 

37 

4— (2137) 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

it is true from time to time, but continuous, resistless, 
inevitable. 

With the stamping out of the rebellion there was, not 
only in Canada, but in the rest of the English-speaking 
world, a marked revival of confidence in the destiny of 
the Dominion. The population took firmer hold of their 
affairs, an ever-increasing flow of immigration began to 
come into the country, and the growth of cities and 
villages at this time became phenomenal. Lord Durham's 
report had not been without its effect ; for Her Majesty's 
commands to Mr. Poulett Thomson, on his appointment 
as Governor-General, were that he was to govern the 
young province " in accordance with the well-understood 
wishes of the people," adding a word of advice about the 
choice of his assistants, i.e., to choose " only those 
persons who have obtained the general confidence and 
esteem of the inhabitants of the province." 

Good as were the intentions of the home government 
it cannot be. said that the first few years were without 
their trials for both sides ; Mr, Poulett Thomson, who 
died in 1841 as Lord Sydenham, was succeeded by Lord 
Metcalfe who, with true autocratic spirit, tried to insist 
upon his right to appoint public servants without 
reference to his council. Sir Colin Campbell in Nova 
Scotia proved a better soldier than diplomatist, and he 
was recalled, to be succeeded by Lord Falkland, who, 
as an administrator was even less of a success. He in 
turn was replaced by Sir John Harvey, who was one of 
the most strenuous fighters for Parliamentary government. 
In 1847, Lord Elgin was appointed Governor-General 
with definite instructions to act upon the advice of his 
executive council, and so good was the spirit with which 
he carried out these views that within four years not only 
Canada as then defined, but Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, 
and Prince Edward Island were fully self-governing. 

At the time of the passing of the Act the French 

38 



THE SEIGNIORAL LAND QUESTION 

Canadians of Lower Canada had feared that the Act of 
Union would be to their detriment. Their fears proved 
groundless, and the unpardonable mistake of attempting 
to substitute the English language for French in official 
and other proceedings was remedied by an alteration in 
the Act. The Seignioral land question, which at one 
time threatened to be a bar to progress, was settled by 
buying out the Seigniors, so relieving the population 
of the rather vexatious duties which some of the older 
Seigniors insisted upon as a right. The fierce controversy 
over the Clergy Reserves question came to an end when 
the land was sold for public purposes. Municipal 
institutions also showed a very large growth at this 
period, and local affairs, now that the country was quiet, 
absorbed a great deal of attention which previously had 
been devoted to party politics, A beginning was made 
with the magnificent educational system which now 
obtains throughout Canada, and the foundation was laid 
of a permanent public service on the hues of the EngUsh 
Civil Service. 



39 



CHAPTER VII 
Confederation 

In spite of apparent progress, there was an underlying 
feeling of dissatisfaction with the state of affairs, 
and the union of Upper and Lower Canada could at the 
best be regarded as no more than a temporary expedient. 
It was but a joint, and a weak one at that : there was no 
actual fusion between the two sections of the people. 

Upper Canada had grown out of all knowledge : the 
population, unlike that of Lower Canada, was increasing 
by leaps and bounds, and the politicians of the day were 
not slow in raising the cry " Rep. by pop,," and " Repre- 
sentation according to numbers " became a popular cry 
in Upper Canada, and, as might be expected, was fiercely 
resisted by the French Canadians, who saw in it an 
attempt to cut away their security, which had been 
guaranteed by the Act. This attitude caused in turn the 
greatest irritation in Upper Canada, and since by the 
Act of 1841 Upper and Lower Canada sent an equal 
number of members to the House, the Assembly was 
equally divided, and it became almost impossible to 
carry on the public business. 

There were other causes of controversy. The grievances 
of the British commercial population were considerable, 
and arose largely from the Imperial Free Trade Act of 
1846, whereby the advantages which had accrued from 
Lord Stanley's Act of 1843 were lost. By the earlier 
statute Canadian wheat and flour were admitted into 
British ports at a nominal duty. This made it profitable 
for Canadians to import from the United States grain 
which was then ground into flour in Canada and shipped 
to the English market. For this trade large mills and 
storehouses had been built in Canada, and a very 
considerable trade had grown up. It was an advantage 

40 



IMPERIAL FREE TRADE ACT 

also to the provinces, since western produce gravitated 
to the St. Lawrence, with a corresponding increase in 
canal dues. At one stroke all these artificial advantages 
were cut away : many commercial men were ruined ; 
the capital sunk in the mills was threatened, and the 
merchandise resumed its natural channel. 

That portion of the United States trade hitherto diver- 
ted to Canada, the Canadian merchant realised could 
not be retained by the Canadian merchant without 
some artificial aid. It was generally said by these that 
the Mother country had treated them shabbily. A 
severe depression ensued.- Property in the towns fell 
50 % in value, and most of the business men were insolvent. 
A strong feeling grew up in the towns in favour of annex- 
ation to the United States. There was only one feasible 
way of averting this, which was, as Lord Elgin saw, " to 
put the colonists in as good a position commercially as 
the citizens of the United States, in order to do which 
free navigation and reciprocal trade with the States were 
indispensable." 

This critical condition of affairs lasted for some six 
years, until in 1854 the Reciprocity Treaty, negotiated 
by Lord Elgin was concluded at Washington, by which 
the protective duties which had hitherto impeded com- 
merce with the States were lowered, and trade flowed in 
and out free and unfettered. This Treaty was to last 
for twelve years — years of memorable prosperity for 
Canada — and could be renewed at the wish of both 
parties. 

It is almost impossible to express the extent to which 
the Reciprocity Treaty contributed to the commercial 
advancement of the Dominion ; the more so because the 
United States became during its continuance Canada's 
chief market. So great a rush of prosperity followed that 
it turned the heads of the people, with the usual deplorable 
results. 

41 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Fierce controversies swept the country from time to 
time. The Clergy Reserves was a burning question, and 
the Rebellion Losses Bill, which was to indemnify 
sufferers from the rebellion, aroused the bitterest passions, 
which culminated in an assault by the mob on the Governor- 
General, Lord Elgin, as he was leaving Parhament House. 
For weeks the country seethed with dissatisfaction, and 
local demonstrations were organised in many parts of the 
provinces. 

In 1849 legislation was put in hand, guaranteeing 
interest on loans raised by any railway company chartered 
by legislature for the construction of a line not less than 
seventy-five miles in length. 

So, as the years swept on and the buoyant hopes 
raised by the union of 1841 were still unfulfilled, a feehng 
of gloom, even of despair, settled down on the much 
troubled provinces. The credit of the country was at 
its lowest ebb; so low indeed, that Canadian 5%'s were 
selling in London at 75. The government, too, was 
involved in the breakdown, for the time being, of the 
Grand Trunk Railway, which was in a desperate condition, 
and apparently on the verge of absolute failure. Another 
point of importance to be remembered was the state of 
almost complete isolation in which were the provinces 
of Upper and Lower Canada, both as regards England 
and as regards one another. In 1858, it is true, the 
Atlantic cable had been laid between Europe and 
America, but communication was interrupted almost 
immediately, and it was some years before the countries 
were linked up. Thus the only means of communication 
with England was by letter, and this meant a delay of 
several weeks, or it might be months, in any important 
negotiations which might be in progress. 

Communications with the maritime provinces were 
equally difficult, and in winter were practically at a 
standstill. British Columbia was sufficient unto itself, 

42 



COMMUNICATION IN 1858 

and the way to it lay across the Isthmus of Central 
America and up the north-east of the United States, 
through trackless plains, forests, swamps, and impassable 
mountains. 

Again, as regards the rest of the provinces, convenience 
for the administration of local affairs helped in some 
degree to keep them apart. New Brunswick and Nova 
Scotia were separated, and as a result of the Ashburton 
Treaty a great wedge of foreign territory had been driven 
up between Canada and New Brunswick. Cape Breton 
was a government by itself, and Newfoundland was a 
post-captain's command.. Each province had its own 
government, its own laws, its own parliamentary system, 
and each in its way was developing along lines of policy 
dictated by purely local considerations. Last, and most 
important, each had a tariff wall built up to a height 
which would keep out its neighbour's produce, and it 
treated and taxed produce of a neighbouring Canadian 
province exactly as it taxed the imports from a foreign 
country. 

Consider, also, the attitude of England. Short-sighted 
politicians regarded the rebellion of thirteen states as a 
warning. It was said that the confederation of the United 
States had come as a disruptive force in the Empire, 
and from this it was deduced that if England could 
keep her small colonies apart, so long as these could 
develop along their own lines in contentment and it 
peace with their neighbours, they were the more likely 
to look to the Motherland for that maternal care which 
England is always ready to bestow upon weak nations or 
weak states. 

England, by her Free Trade policy, by the repeal of 
the Com Laws and the preferential duties, had suddenly 
swept away the supports which had sustained the 
Canadian exporter, and was accepting tenders for supplies 
from the whole world on an equal basis. No one doubts 

43 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

that this was well within her competence, but she would 
have been well advised in exhibiting a greater solicitude, 
at this juncture, for her Canadian fellow-subjects. One is 
glad to think that a more considerate spirit prevails to-day. 

As in 1791, so in 1862, there was a party at home which 
did not believe in Canada, and was prepared to see 
Canada absorbed into the United States ; and these 
views were held by English statesmen on both sides of 
politics, who would have been quite content had Canada 
asked for independence. 

Side by side with this, the progress of public opinion 
in the Canadian provinces was tending towards a greater 
measure of self-government and independence from the 
harassing methods of the English colonial administrators, 
as well as from her own embarrassments. 

On the borders of Canada the great American Civil 
War was in progress, and it was only by the exercise of the 
most astute jiiplomacy that Canada avoided being 
drawn into the maelstrom. The danger of invasion was 
said to be a serious one common to the Canadian colonies. 

Such was the position of Canada in the years 1860-63 ; 
disorganised, rent by internal dissensions, the ugly scars 
of which still remain. She was both poor and isolated, 
and as a climax there came a hopeless Parliamentary 
deadlock. Her best statesmen despaired ; there seemed 
nothing for it but absolute dissolution of the Union, or 
annexation by the United States. Yet there was working 
a leaven which, within the next five years, was to change 
the whole face of the situation. That leaven was the 
idea of Confederation. 

This was no new idea : Lord Durham had recommended 
it in his great Report, and it had occurred to writers even 
before that. The politicians hoped by it to modify the 
antagonisms between British and French — the underlying 
cause of most of the trouble. During the clamour 
over the Rebellion Losses Bill we find that an organisation 

44 



POSITION IN 1860-63 

called the British American League had among its 
propaganda the idea of a union of all the provinces of 
Canada. The railway legislation, again, of 1851 was 
another strong force tending towards the consolidation 
of the colonies. It is true that the complications which 
arose as to the apportionment of the expense retarded 
the movement considerably ; but by the years 1862-3 
the negotiations had proceeded so far that an agreement 
was come to as to the relative amount which the provinces 
were prepared to bear, and laws were passed by the 
legislature of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia confirming 
the arrangement. 

The construction of the American railways was pro- 
ceeding rapidly, and tending more and more to divert, 
not only the carrying trade of the western states, but 
even that of Canada, and it was felt that unless the whole 
of Canada could combine in some fashion in the construc- 
tion of a railroad, that her dependence on the United 
States would grow. 

In 1858 Mr. Gait, an independent member, made a 
telling speech advocating the union of all the provinces, 
and he entered the Cartier-Macdonald government only 
on the understanding that it was a plank of their political 
platform. It was in this year that a tariff bill was 
introduced which imposed rates of 20 and 25 % on certain 
commodities, and a general rate of 15% on articles not 
specially enumerated. The tariff of 1859, generally 
spoken of as the beginnings of protection, merely 
amplified this tariff of 1858. 

To revert for a moment to the political situation, it 
must be said that on account of the even voting between 
Upper and Lower Canada the government of the day 
was dependent absolutely upon the vote of every sup- 
porter, and a small chque of faddists could change the 
pohcy of a ministry, or, if their demands were not 
complied with, wreck it, 

45 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

There was the peculiar, and indeed, unique situation 
then existent of a dual premiership ; that is to say, that 
no man from Upper or Lower Canada could be found 
acceptable to a ministry composed of representatives 
of the two provinces ; and for years it was necessary to 
have a combined ministry, which was known, not by 
the name of a premier, but by the name of two premiers 
as witness, the Cartier-Macdonald Government, the 
Brown-Dorrien Government, the Macdonald-Sicotte 
Government, and so forth. 

Another important condition besides that of dual 
premiership was that of a capital alternating between 
Toronto and Quebec, so causing great expense in many 
ways and great inconvenience to those whose business 
it was to deal with members of parhament. 

Added to all this inconvenience was the fact that in 
practice the life of a ministry was hardly more than six 
months. The Cartier-Macdonald ministry, for example, 
lived six months after its election in 1862 ; as did the 
Sandfield-Macdonald-Sicotte ministry. The deadlock was 
complete, and the longer it lasted the more difficult 
became the situation. With each successive ministry and 
its inevitable defeat the irritation of both parties grew. 

In the midst of all this chaos the suggestion of Con- 
federation was revived and was matured. It is difficult 
to understand even now how it ever became a concrete 
fact. This great movement, imposed by the circumstances 
of the day, was put into force by a number of great men, 
whose enthusiasm carried their cause over every prejudice 
and obstacle. 

One of these was George Brown of Ontario, another, 
Cartier of Quebec. Both were typical as well as strong 
men ; their views on politics were diametrically opposed ; 
and they had fought bitterly but honestly in the political 
arena for years. Yet in one thing they joined hands : 
it was in their intense devotion to the interests of the 

46 



A DUAL PREMIERSHIP 

country. Both feared and detested any sort of union 
with the United States whose pohcy they distrusted, and 
with some reason, for in 1866 the United States, which 
was then in the full career of her commercial boom, 
abrogated without warning the Reciprocity Treaty of 1854. 

The discussion of motives which control the actions of 
individuals or of states is rarely politic or profitable. 
The loss of the Reciprocity Treaty was due to the resent- 
ment felt by the U.S.A. against Canada and England, 
or to put it more precisely, against a party in England 
which lost Canada her great market to the South, as to 
which Treaty the Canadian Government formally declared 
" it would be impossible to express in figures the extent 
to which it had contributed to the wealth and prosperity 
of the country and the importance which the people of 
Canada attached to its continued enjoyment." 

This is one of those instances which goes to show that 
Canada's connection with Great Britain does not always 
make for her material prosperity. There are, we know, 
counterbalancing items, but it may be well to indicate 
that there have been sacrifices on the part of the Daughter 
State as well as of the Mother Country. 

Sir George Cartier, like all French Canadians, dreaded 
anything which would tend to merge the nationality of 
the French Canadians in that of another nation. Mr. 
George Brown, though his sympathies were all against 
the French Canadians, felt on the part of Upper Canada 
that the tie with Great Britain should be maintained at 
all costs. With these two men worked Sir Alexander 
Gait, whose name has already been mentioned as an 
advocate of federation. He threw himself heart and 
soul into the task of convincing the country, and it is 
largely to his influence that Sir George Cartier was 
persuaded to take part in the movement. Great efforts 
were necessary to win over the allegiance of Sir John 
Macdonald, but for a time without full success. A 

47 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

leading characteristic of Sir John's poHtical character 
was a conservatism and caution which dreaded any 
uncertain step into the unknown. This being so, Con- 
federation did not at the outset appeal to him as an 
immediately practical policy. It was slowly that he was 
persuaded to consent to the matter being forwarded, and, 
then, it is said, only under pressure from his supporters, 
who said openly that in the event of a dissolution they 
would not offer themselves again as candidates unless 
Confederation was to be included in his policy, and unless 
he consented to support some form of coalition govern- 
ment if it were necessary. Subsequently, however, he 
lent full and invaluable support in producing Confeder- 
ation, and it must be said a large body of opinion in 
Canada regards him as " The Father of Confederation." 
His judgment of men was so remarkable and accurate 
as to amount to genius, and his unerring choice of instru- 
ments during the great work of unifying the colonies was 
essential not only to its attainment, but still more to the 
early life of the Dominion. The outstanding character- 
istic of this great leader lay in his profound knowledge 
of human nature. 

Nor were the electors at all unanimous on the point ; 
indeed, had it not been for the indomitable perseverance 
of the three leaders it is quite likely that the matter 
would have been delayed indefinitely. What would 
then have been the future history of the Dominion it 
is not hard to imagine. 

In the autumn of 1864 a representative meeting of men 
of all shades of political opinion was held to consider 
the carrying out of the measure. After deliberating 
for several weeks the delegates unanimously adopted a set 
of some seventy-two resolutions which embodied the 
terms and conditions on which the provinces would agree 
to a federal union. 

These resolutions were laid before the various 

48 



CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES 

legislatures, and adopted in the shape of addresses to the 
Crown : for, of course, the formal consent of England 
was necessary. This was freely given, and the Colonial 
Office extended invaluable assistance with some of the 
reluctant sections. 

In New Brunswick the legislature dissolved on the 
question, and came back with an adverse mandate from 
the electors. In the other provinces, however, the ques- 
tion was not put to the people at all, and the legislators 
voted upon it as they would upon an ordinary measure 
of minor importance. 

When the parliament met in 1865 the Governor's 
opening speech mentioned the subject of Confederation, 
and he spoke strongly in its favour. He announced 
that the home government approved of the project, and 
would introduce the necessary legislation into the Imperial 
Parliament as soon as the provincial legislators should 
have declared their adhesion. The matter was debated 
long and ardently, and eventually on the 10th of March, 
1865, the motion was introduced by the Attorney- 
General., " That a humble address be presented to Her 
Majesty praying that she might be graciously pleased to 
allow the said measure to be submitted to the Imperial 
Parliament, for the purpose of uniting the colonies of 
Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, 
and Prince Edward Island in one government, with 
provisions based on certain resolutions which were 
adopted at the conference of delegates ^ of the said colonies, 
held at the city of Quebec on the 10th of October, 1864." 

The motion was carried by a majority of fifty-eight. A 
similar motion had been carried in the legislative 
council on February the 20th, by forty-five to fifteen. 

^ The Delegates to the Quebec Conference 
Hon. Sir Etienne P. Tache, M.L.C. Premier. 
Hon. John A. Macdonald, M.P.P. Attorney-General of Upper 
Canada. 

49 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Hon. George Etienne Cartier, M.P.P. Attorney-General of 

Lower Canada. 
Hon. George Brown, M.P.P. President of the Executive 

Council. 
Hon. Alexander T. Gait, M.P.P. Finance Minister. 
Hon. Alexander Campbell, M.L.C. Commissioner of Crown 

Lands. 
Hon. Jean C. Chapais, M.L.C. Commissioner of Public Works. 
Hon. Thomas D'Arcy McGee, M.P.P. Minister of Agriculture. 
Hon. Hector L. Langevin, M.P.P. Solictor-General for Lower 

Canada. 
Hon. William McDougall, M.P.P. Provincial Secretary. 
Hon. James Cockburn, M.P.P. Solicitor-General for Upper 

Canada. 
Hon. Oliver Mowat, M.P.P. Postmaster-General. 
Nova Scotia 

Hon. Charles Tupper, M.P.P. Provincial Secretary and 

Premier. 
Hon. William A. Henry, M.P.P. Attorney-General. 
Hon. Robert^ P. Dickey, M.L.C. 
Hon. Adam G. Archibald, M.P.P. 
Hon. Jonathan McCully, M.L.C. 
New Brunswick 

Hon. Samuel M. Tilley, M.P.P. Provincial Secretary and 

Premier. 
Hon. Peter Mitchell, M.L.C. 
Hon. Charles Fisher, M.P.P. 
Hon. William H. Steeves, M.L.C. 
Hon. John Hamilton Gray, M.P.P. 
Hon. Edward B. Chandler, M.L.C. 
Hon. John M. Johnson, M.P.P. Attorney-General. 
Prince Edward Island 

Hon. John Hamilton Gray, M.P.P. Premier. 
Hon. George Coles, M.P.P. 
Hon. Thomas Heath Haviland, M.P.P. 
Hon. Edward Palmer, M.P.P. Attorney-General. 
Hon. Andrew Archibald Macdonald, M.L.C. 
Hon. Edward Whelan, M.L.C. 

Hon. William H. Hope, M.P.P. Provincial Secretary. 
Newfoundland 

Hon. Frederick B. T. Carter, M.P.P. Speaker of the House 

of Assembly. 
Hon. Ambrose Shea, M.P.P. 

50 



END OF AMERICAN WAR 

In accordance with the resolution these addresses were 
prepared and presented to Lord Monck for transmission 
to the Crown, and in April a deputation of four members of 
the administration, Messieurs Cartier, Macdonald, Brown, 
and Gait, proceeded to England to confer with the Imperial 
Government to promote the scheme of federation. 

In the maritime provinces the project was received 
with reserve amounting to hostility. The general 
election in New Brunswick resulted in the return of a 
majority hostile to union. Nova Scotia also was shy 
about coming in, and Prince Edward Island not only 
passed resolutions antagonistic to Confederation but 
even repudiated the action of their provincial delegates 
at the Quebec Conference. Nevertheless the administra- 
tion steadily pushed forward their scheme. There was 
no question of coercing the maritime provinces, and it 
was recognised that they were free to come into the Union 
or not as they pleased. 

The four delegates to England received full assurances 
of the goodwill of the home government towards their 
plans, and an Imperial guarantee of a loan for the con- 
struction of an inter-colonial line of railway was obtained. 
On their part the delegates were able to say that Canada 
would devote all her resources for the maintenance of 
her connection with the Mother Country. 

The American War ended in the surrender of General 
Lee at Appomattox, and the assassination of President 
Lincoln followed almost "immediately. As was natural, 
a deep impression was created in Canada by these events, 
and faces turned with some anxiety towards the new 
President to see what his policy would be with regard 
to American-Canadian relations. The formal notice 
required for abrogating the Reciprocity Treaty had been 
already given by the States, and the existence of the 
Treaty would, in the ordinary course of events, end in 
the March of the following year. 

51 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

The new President refused to entertain any proposition 
whatever for the renewal of the Treaty. 

In comphance with a suggestion from the home gov- 
ernment a confederate council to deal with commercial 
treaties had been formed at Quebec, consisting of 
representatives of each province of the proposed con- 
federation. These recommended that a deputation 
should be sent to Washington to make a final attempt 
at the renewal of the Treaty. 

The government adopted the recommendation, and 
appomted delegates, but the terms which these delegates 
were allowed to negotiate were such that Mr, Brown, 
who had served his country so well in bringing about 
Confederation, made them the reasons for renouncing an 
always uncomfortable position in the Cabinet. He 
felt that the dignity of Canada should not have allowed 
her to send delegates to beg for a fresh Treaty, but that 
there should be a fair Treaty, and not one dictated by 
the American Government. 

The delegates who were sent to Washington in the 
beginning of 1866 met with absolute failure, and no 
further attempt to reopen the question was made for 
several years. 

Scenes of the most remarkable character occurred at 
this time on the Canadian railways, and the international 
ferries, and for several months before the Elgin Treaty 
expired waggons, ferries, and all forms of locomotion 
were crowded with outgoing cattle, horses, and farm 
produce purchased by Americans in Canada before the 
expiration of Reciprocity. 

The money received for all these things was a welcome 
addition to the farmer's store, but the effect of the repulse 
was felt throughout the country. It was seen that the 
old channels of commerce were unavailable and fresh 
ones must be sought, and a commission was appointed 
to seek fresh markets in South America and the West 

52 



THE DISLOCATION OF TRADE 

Indies, and generally to open up a new avenue 
of trade. 

Canada reeled under the dislocation of trade, and a 
lesser people might have succumbed ; as it was the 
unneighbourly action of the U.S.A. ruffled her pride. 
The effect produced was the reverse of that expected, 
and Canadians adapted themselves to the seriously 
altered circumstances with energy and intelligence, and 
with such success that, as is well known, Canadian 
products are in several directions largely replacing in the 
United Kingdom suppHes which formerly came from 
the Republic. 

On the 8th June the last session of the provincial 
parliament met at Ottawa. The opening speech an- 
nounced that the Governor-General expected that the 
measure of Confederation would shortly be carried into 
effect, and that the next assembly of Parliament would 
be attended not only by representatives of Canada but 
by those of all the colonies in British North America. 

From this it will be seen that the Confederation project 
had considerably advanced in the maritime provinces. 
In New Brunswick there had been a fresh appeal to the 
people, and advocates of the change had won the day. 
In Nova Scotia, after a fierce fight, the scheme powerfully 
advocated by Sir Charles Tupper had been passed by a 
large majority. Prince Edward Island though hostile, 
was a small province, and Newfoundland did nothing at 
all in the matter. 

It was therefore decided that Canada, Nova Scotia, 
and New Brunswick should proceed into Confederation, 
leaving British Columbia, Prince Edward Island and 
Newfoundland to follow if they wished. 

In November, 1866, the Canadian deputation repaired 
to England to meet delegates from the other provinces, 
and a conference was organised at the Westminster 
Palace Hotel by the 4th of December, and sat until 

53 

5— (2137) 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

the 24th of December, by which time all the important 
details were finally settled. Modifications, concessions 
on both sides, as was natural, were made in the resolutions 
of the Quebec conference of 1864, but in all essential 
respects the project remained unchanged. On the 29th 
of March, the Bill, having passed through all the stages 
in both Houses, received the Royal assent, and with it 
an Act authorising the oihcials of the Treasury to 
guarantee interest on a loan of not more than £3,000,000 
sterling for the construction of the Inter-colonial Railway. 

With the passing of the British North America Act 
of 1867, Canada as a Dominion came into being. 

Within the next three years the province of Manitoba 
was formed, and the then North-West Territories acquired. 
Prince Edward Island and British Columbia also came 
into Confederation, and thus consolidated the Dominion. 

British Columbia and Confederation 

Until the last thirty years the Province of British 
Columbia has occupied a detached position, and it may 
be well to recall some of the facts of her history. 

In 1849, Vancouver Island was constituted a Crown 
Colony, and in 1858 what was formerly called New 
Caledonia was created a second Crown Colony, under the 
name of British Columbia, and included all that is now 
known as British Columbia, excepting Vancouver Island. 

Prior to its entry into Confederation, and indeed for 
some years after that event, the means of transportation 
in the province were altogether bad. Railways were con- 
spicuous by their absence, roads not good, and certainly 
not plentiful, and there was no postal or telegraphic 
communication with the country to the east. Vancouver 
and British Columbia were colonies merely in name, for 
although in the former there existed a legislative assembly 
its vote could not remove the executive officials, the 

54 



BRITISH COLUMBIA 

power to do this being vested in the Governor and his 
officers. A legislative council was organised in British 
Columbia in 1863, consisting of thirteen members, but 
only three of these were elected by the people, five being 
government officials, and the other five magistrates 
appointed by the government. The first meeting of 
this council was held in 1864, when the expenditure 
was given as £192,860, and the revenue as £110,000. At 
this time, the whole white population of the colony of 
British Columbia was but small, probably under 8,000, 
and the taxes were very high. In Vancouver Island in 
1864, the white population was estimated at about 7,500, 
but as expenditure was much less, the taxes were corre- 
spondingly lower. But, taking the two colonies together, 
it has been estimated that the tax per capita amounted 
to £19. The excess of expenditure over revenue, and 
the constantly increasing debt, made loans for the colony 
of British Columbia difficult to float in the London 
market, and also made the rate of interest payable on 
such loans very high. The sister colony of Vancouver 
Island was, at the same time, passing through a period 
of severe financial depression, and it was decided by its 
legislature that expenditure must be curtailed. This 
was done, and when Captain Kennedy, a newly-appointed 
Governor of the province, landed at Victoria in 1864, 
he was met by the intelligence that his salary, and that 
of his officials, had been struck off the estimates. In 
this juncture, after several expedients to relieve the 
financial position had been suggested, it was decided, 
by the Government of Great Britain, to unite the two 
colonies, and this measure was passed in 1866. 

Although the British North America Act was passed 
by the home government in 1867, British Columbia did 
not join the Union until 1871. At the conference held 
in Quebec in 1864 the province was not represented 
in any way, and, as its admission seemed a remote 

55 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

contingency, all matters relative to it were deferred for 
future consideration. A resolution was, however, 
passed, providing that British Columbia and Vancouver 
Island should be admitted into the Union on such terms 
as were considered equitable by the Parliament of the 
federated provinces, and as might be agreed to by the 
legislature of the province. After the passage of the 
Act, the people of British Columbia were eager to be 
admitted into the Confederation, and the subject was 
brought up at a sitting of the legislature in 1868. This 
came to nothing. The matter, however, progressed, 
and in 1871 an address to Her Majesty the Queen was 
passed, praying for admission into the Union under the 
terms of the British North America Act. So in that 
year British Columbia became a portion of the Dominion 
of Canada. 

Some badly needed means of communication by sea 
were provided for, but undoubtedly the most important 
of the terms was the undertaking, by the Dominion 
Government, to construct a railway from the Pacific 
to the Rocky Mountains, to connect the seaboard of 
British Columbia with the railway system of Canada. 
This undertaking was naturally all-important to the 
province and its development ; which, in the past, owing 
to the want of facilities of the kind, had been exceedingly 
slow. But little could be done to utilise its immense 
natural resources, and great tracts of a country abounding 
in mineral and forest wealth, together with agricultural 
lands of the first order, were practically untrodden. 

The construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway, of 
which the projected line formed a part, was first authorised 
in 1870. Under the charter, the time for beginning 
expired in 1873 ; but in 1878 nothing had been done 
in British Columbia beyond exploratory surveys. The 
people of the province were much discontented at the 
non-realisation of the chief hope with which they entered 

56 



THE "CARNARVON TERMS" ' 

the union, and roundly charged the Federal Government 
with breach of faith. This discontent had been growing 
for some time, for in 1874 a delegate was sent to London 
for the purpose of laying the matter before the home 
government. A compromise was, however, arrived at, 
which was known as the " Carnarvon terms." The long 
and continued delay had caused a feeling of strong 
resentment in the province, and it was stated that, if the 
Canadian Government failed to carry into effect the 
terms accepted by them, withdrawal from the Confeder- 
ation would be the result. At last, in 1885, land was 
broken for the railway, and construction was then con- 
tinued practically without interruption, until completion 
in 1888. Much railway building has taken place in the 
province since then, but there can be no doubt that the 
opening of that first railway communication was the 
means of raising it out of the slough of despond into 
which it had fallen, and of bringing it to the high level 
of prosperity it enjoys to-day. 



57 



CHAPTER VIII 

The Era of Canadian Railways 

For a new country transportation is life. Without 
adequate transportation progress is impossible, and in 
a country of great distances, such as is Canada, this 
is more than ever true. Forests, mineral wealth beyond 
the dreams of avarice, land of amazing fertility, all 
are comparatively useless without the means to bring 
them within the human reach. Canada, it is true, 
possesses a fine system of waterways, rivers, and lakes, 
which within and about the Dominion are estimated to 
contain half the fresh water of the world. The St. 
Lawrence cuts deep into the heart of the continent. 
Hudson's, Bay, too, breaks in from the north. The great 
lakes provide transport in the south. Innumerable 
rivers, broad and navigable, are to be found. Amongst 
them the hand of man has been busy in the construction 
of canals, yet still they are inadequate for the traffic 
which is the life of the country. Besides, for some months 
of every year these waterways are closed by frost, and 
navigation must cease for months. There is, too, that 
enormous barrier, the Rocky Mountains, which bars the 
prairies from the Pacific. In England the first line of 
railway between Stockton and Darlington was opened 
in 1825, and in Canada the men who were at the head 
immediately grasped the possibiHties of steam. Between 
1835-45 many charters for small lines were granted, 
but the country was unsettled, the rebellion of 1837 had 
sown suspicion in the minds even of Canadian well- 
wishers, and capital preferred some less speculative 
opening ; so that in 1850 there were but fifty-five miles 
of railway in the whole country. The last report of the 
Ministry of Railways shows that Canada now has 27,000 
miles completed and under construction. 

58 



THE GRAND TRUNK RAILWAY 

The railway era may be said to have begun in 1850 
with the turning of the first sod of the Northern Railway, 
and two years later the Grand Trunk Company was 
incorporated. Between 1853-58 the Great Western 
built and used 360 miles, so that up to the time of Con- 
federation in 1867 about 2,500 miles were in use. 
Practically all these systems have been absorbed in the 
Grand Trunk, the first railway organisation of Canada. 
The stimulus provided by these lines was amazing : 
Ontario leaped into prosperity, the sleepy cities of 
Montreal and Toronto woke from their lethargy and be- 
came living centres of industry. The lines were an 
inestimable boon to the country, but to the investors they 
must have cost some little heartburning. 

In 1846 Britain adopted the system of Free Trade, 
so abolishing the preference previously given to Canadian 
wheat and Canadian timber, and whilst the benefit or 
otherwise may be still a matter of political debate there can 
be no doubt that the abolition of preference preceded a 
severe crisis in Canada. The crisis was succeeded by a 
depression which did not lift until the Reciprocity Treaty 
of 1854 was arranged with the United States. 

Again it must be remembered that the railways were 
built by English engineers, skilled in the linking up of 
crowded English towns but ignorant of the methods 
suitable to a thinly populated country, where transport 
of merchandise was of more value than transport of men. 
These early lines were of sound construction but their 
cost was prohibitive. The most striking example of 
this tendency is the Victoria bridge over the St. Lawrence, 
where the Grand Trunk Railway enters Montreal. It 
was built under the direction of Robert Stevenson and 
cost 6,300,000 dollars with interest charges accruing 
during the six years of its construction. A few miles up 
the river is the steel bridge built long after by the Canadian 
Pacific Railway performing exactly the same office, 

59 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

which was built in a year and cost less than 1,000,000 
dollars. The example of Ontario and Quebec was followed 
by the little provinces of New Brunswick and Nova 
Scotia, who, working on the same lines, had the same 
objects — communication with Quebec so as to reach the 
upper provinces, and communication westward from the 
New England states. 

When, in 1867, Confederation came to bind together the 
whole country, the construction of the Inter-Colonial 
Railway was one of the main conditions of that great 
covenant. At that time the maritime provinces were 
cut off from the rest of Canada by a trackless wilderness, 
and so were completely out of touch entirely with the 
rest of their fellow-countrymen. Thus, there was some 
danger that the force of circumstances would fling them 
into the arms of the United States. England was almost 
as deeply interested in the construction of the line as 
was Canada. It was urged in favour of the construction 
of the railway that troops sent out in 1861-2 were cut off 
by the winter snows and had to be transported over 
hundreds of miles on sledges to reach the centre of the 
disturbance in the upper provinces. The Trent affair 
of 1861 and the Alabama trouble had created hostile 
feelings, and Canada would in all probability have been 
the battle-ground had war broken out between the two 
great branches of the British race. 

Ultimately, the Imperial Government guaranteed a 
loan of £3,000,000, required to defray the cost of con- 
struction, on the understanding that the line should 
take a strategic route, that is to say, one sufficiently 
remote from the American frontier to guarantee freedom 
from a sudden raid in the case of hostilities. This line, 
from a purely commercial point of view, and probably 
hampered by politics, has not at all times been an un- 
qualified success, but it must be remembered that it was 
built for and achieved a great national purpose, and it 

60 



THE GOVERNMENT LOAN 

has given the Dominion access through its own territory 
to its own ports, which are open all the year round. 

Thus on the east communication was established ; but 
it was equally necessary to bind the continent together 
from east to west, that there should be a railway linking 
up the open spaces between Lake Superior and the 
Rocky Mountains. 

Now, as has been told in a previous chapter, British 
Columbia still held out from the union, and if she was 
to be drawn in the only method was to provide her with 
a railway, and so the Canadian Pacific Railway, one of 
the great engineering works of modern times, came into 
being. 



61 



CHAPTER IX 

The Hudson's Bay Company 

It will have been noticed that in the earlier chapters 
dealing with the history of Canada very little mention 
has been made of the northern and the north-western 
parts. There is, in fact, very little history to tell of a 
kind which has any bearing on the evolution of the 
Canadian race. In the north and the north-west was 
savage, wooded country where the foot of man seldom 
trod, full of unchartered swamps and trackless forests, 
and, so far as the early dwellers could see, quite valueless 
from an agricultural point of view. There were, however, 
to be found wild animals with coveted skins, and in 1670 
a company of merchant adventurers, brought together 
by Prince Rupert and seventeen noblemen and gentlemen, 
obtained a charter from the King to trade in furs and 
skins with the Indians of North America. 

The governors of the Hudson's Bay Company were 
" made, created, and constituted, the absolute lords and 
proprietors " of Rupert's Land, and held it " ^s of our 
manor at East Greenwich in our county of Kent, in free 
common soccage, and not in capite, or by knights service, 
yielding and paying yearly to us, our heirs and successors, 
for the same two elks and two black beavers, whensoever 
and so often as we, our heirs and successors, shall happen 
to enter into the said country, territory, and regions, hereby 
granted." 

We see, therefore, that the company was invested 
with absolute ownership and right of traffic for the defined 
territory, which, under the name of Rupert's Land com- 
prised all the land discovered and undiscovered within 
the entrance of Hudson's Strait. By the wording of the 

62 



STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY 

charter it was understood that this territory included, 
not only the territory around Hudson's Bay, but also 
all the lands that drained into the Bay and the Strait. 

For more than a century the traders had all their work 
to do to maintain themselves on the shores of the Strait, 
to beat off Indians and to secure themselves against the 
rigours of the climate, without indulging in exploration 
into the interior. The French of the St. Lawrence 
valley had no love for these Enghsh adventurers, and 
Lemoine DTbervile applied the torch to many of their 
trading posts, but the Hudson's Bay Company, hardy 
pioneers as tliey were, were not to be dismayed. They 
retired to their forts, imported fresh goods, and armed 
their ships against the attackers ; and when Canada 
passed from France to England in 1763 the adventurers 
pushed out south and west to the unknown in search 
of fresh trade and fresh country. 

It was about this time that French adventurers began 
to penetrate from the south, the region of the great lakes, 
and their discovery of the abundance of trade to be had 
in the north led, in 1783, to the formation of the North- 
West Company, a combine of merchants in furs. Served 
as it was by Englishmen and Scotchmen largely, the 
Hudson's Bay Company resented the advent of the French 
Canadian explorer, and the two companies fought bitterly 
for trade, and at times for very life, during the ensuing 
forty years. 

Two servants of each company have left their names 
on the map of Canada, for it was about this time that 
the Mackenzie River was discovered and explored to the 
Arctic Sea by Mackenzie of the North-West Company. 
Simon Eraser, again, explored the Eraser River, and 
David Thompson, of the North-West Company, dis- 
covered and named the Thompson River. Samuel 
Hearne, belonging to the Hudson's Bay Company, discov- 
ered the Coppermine River, and later established on the 

63 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Saskatchewan River the fort which is still known as 
Cumberland House. 

In 1811 the company (the true and absolute lords of 
Rupert's Land) " granted, aliened, and feoffed, and con- 
firmed to the Right Honourable the Earl of Selkirk, his heirs 
and assigns," an enormous tract of territory comprising 
over 100,000 square miles of country, with an important 
reservation in favour of the grantors, saving and reserving 
to the governors of the company and their successors 
all rights of jurisdiction whatsoever granted to the said 
company by their charter. For this reason the governors 
of Assiniboia received their commissions from the com- 
pany, and not from Lord Selkirk. One tenth of this 
tract was to be set aside for the use of such servants as 
had been in the service of the company. 

The Ea'rl of Selkirk was an enterprising Scotch noble- 
man, who at an earlier date had made a settlement in 
Prince Edward Island, and in 1812 he formed on the 
banks of the Red River a fresh settlement, composed 
mainly of Scotchmen with a few Irishmen amongst them. 
The North-West Company did not appreciate this 
parcelling out of hunting-grounds, nor did it approve 
of Lord Selkirk's settlement. The settlement was grow- 
ing, and the prospects of the earlier members of the 
community were so improved that they wrote to England 
inviting their friends to join them. In 1816, therefore, 
the employees of the North-West Company suddenly 
attacked Fort Douglas, and retreated after destroying 
the Fort and murdering Governor Semple, who was in 
charge. 

Lord Selkirk gathered a band of mercenaries and came 
at full speed to the relief of his colony, and succeeded 
eventually in bringing to trial several of the employees 
of the North-West Company on charges of high treason, 
murder, robbery, conspiracy, and other capital offences. 

At that time the powers of the judiciary were not 

64 



THE RED RIVER SETTLEMENT 

entirely free from the charge of truckling to the great 
ones of the earth ; and the North-West Company, which 
possessed an enormous influence in that part of the 
country, secured a verdict against Lord Selkirk for 
conspiring to ruin the trade of the company. For 
this the Lord Selkirk was fined heavily and retired dis- 
gusted to France, where he died two years later. The 
settlement had cost the unfortunate nobleman from 
first to last, says Ross, not less than £85,000, an amount 
the colony would not have realised had it been sold by 
auction within twenty years after it was founded. 

By the year 1821 the Hudson's Bay Company had 
coalesced with the North-West Company, and a combined 
organisation swept the country from the Arctic Ocean 
to the American border, and from Cape Breton to 
Vancouver. This was perhaps the most prosperous time 
in the life of the Hudson's Bay Company, for they had 
absolute monopoly of trading, and would allow no 
rivals of any kind to interfere with their arrangements. 

The Red River settlement became the headquarters 
of the combined company, and in 1835 a system of local 
government was established, with a president, a council, 
and a court of law at Fort Garry, a high stone structure 
with walls ten or twelve feet high, and defended by 
cannon and musketry. 

In 1838 the Hudson's Bay Company acquired the sole 
right of trading in furs for a period of twenty-one years, 
but at the end of that time its monopoly expired, and the 
fur trade was opened to all comers without let or hindrance. 
Though the loss of its monopoly was no doubt a blow 
to the Hudson's Bay Company its organisation was so 
excellent that fresh comers had immense difficulties to 
contend with, and the loss to the company was more 
apparent than real for many years to come. 

Whilst the Company no longer retained its monopoly 
of fur trading it had still a large grant of land which it had 

65 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

acquired m its early days. From time to time mutterings 
were to be heard among advanced thinkers at the enor- 
mous Territories held by this commercial company, but 
it was not imtil 1856 that the public mind became fully 
aroused to the desirabihty of dealing with the matter 
finally and decisively. It was then only that Canadians 
began to think about these vast spaces in the north-west, 
and the desirabihty of linking them up with the rest of 
the country. It was not an easy task to move the 
Hudson's Bay Company, entrenched as it was in its 
fastnesses so far from the thoughts of the man in the 
street, and buttressed by quite a considerable section 
of the Canadian press, who for various motives desired 
the status quo to remain. It is only fair to add that 
whilst some of the opponents of change were in some 
way or another indebted to the Hudson's Bay Company, 
another section beheved honestly that the lands were 
valueless, or nearly so, and that they would be no more 
than a charge and a burden to the commimity, which 
could ill afford fresh handicaps to its prosperity. 

In the hght of oiu: knowledge of to-day one can read 
with amazement tempered \vith surprise a quotation from 
the Montreal Transcript of the fifties " that the climate 
of the North-West is altogether unfavourable to the growth 
of grain, and that the shortness of the summer made it 
difiicult even to mature a small potato or a cabbage." 
This of a country which produces its forty bushels 
to the acre to-day ! However, the balance of opinion 
was with the reformers, and the agitation was so well 
kept up that by the end of 1856 negotiations were opened 
up with the Hudson's Bay Company, and early in the 
following year Chief Justice Draper was sent on a mission 
to England to represent the provinces in the negotiations 
which were then in progress. WTien the Houses of 
Parliament met in the following year the Speech from 
the Throne contained the announcement that Her 

66 



INVESTIGATION OF RIGHTS 

Majesty's Government had determined to submit to the 
consideration of a committee certain questions connected 
with the Territories of the Hudson's Bay Company. 

The discussions pursued a slow and even course for the 
next few years, and it was not until the time of 
Confederation that the matter came up for final decision. 

The rights of the company were carefully investigated, 
and on December the 4th, 1862, a series of resolutions 
were introduced into the House by Mr. McDougall, with 
the object of bringing under the control of the Dominion 
Government Rupert's Land and the North-West 
Territories. 

In 1869 Sir" George Cartier and Mr. McDougall, who 
had been sent to England to arrange for the surrender 
of the Hudson's Bay Company, completed their negotia- 
tions, and the conditions of the surrender were that the 
company should receive from the Dominion Government 
the sum of ;^"300,000, and that all rights of the Company, 
with certain reservations, should be the property of the 
Imperial Government, by whom they were to be trans- 
ferred to the Dominion Government one month later. 
The reservations were considerable ; they included 
certain lands, amounting in all to about 50,000 acres, 
and in addition one-twentieth of all the land in 
the great belt south of the north branch of the 
Saskatchewan River. Truly a king's ransom. 

These terms being agreed upon they received the 
sanction of the Dominion Parliament, and an Act was 
passed providing a Territorial government for the country 
which was being ceded. 

The enormous tract thus brought into the Dominion 
was named the North-West Territories, and it was 
decided that its affairs should be administered by a 
Lieutenant-Governor appointed by the Govembr- General 
in Council. Provision was made for the formation of a 
Council to assist him in the carrying out of his duties, 

67 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

and certain other temporary provisions bringing the code 
of the North-West Territories into hne with the rest 
of the Dominion. 

All these were purely temporary measures, since it was 
understood that as soon as the population and importance 
of the new Territories demanded it, a permanent 
organisation for the new government was to be set up. 

So, with the passing of the Act, faded from the pages 
of Canadian history a powerful force, which had exercised 
royal powers over quite a considerable section of the 
Dominion. 

The Hudson's Bay Company still remains a prosperous 
trading concern, run upon sound business principles, 
and reaping its harvest from the trackless north. True, 
it has other rivals in the fur trade, but it remains a fine 
example of private enterprise, and as such receives the 
respect of all Canadians. 

The recent history of this honourable body is too 
well known to need recapitulation. The annual meeting 
of the shareholders in London, under the Presidency of 
its venerable Governor, Lord Strathcona, is one of the 
events of the commercial year. The Deputy-Governor 
is Mr. Thomas Skinner, and the Committee, six in number, 
are : — Mr. John Coles, Mr. L. D. Cunhffe, Mr. Vivian 
Hugh Smith, Mr. R. M. Kindersley, Mr. WilHam Mackenzie, 
and Mr. Richard Burbidge. The affairs of the company 
in Canada are under the control, subject to the Governor, 
Deputy-Governor and Committee, of a Commissioner, 
Mr. C. C. Chipman, with headquarters at Winnipeg. 



68 



CHAPTER X 

The Development of the West 

Western Canada of to-day, embracing the provinces 
of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta, has been well 
called " The Land of Opportunity." That is to say, for 
those who are prepared to adapt themselves to existing 
conditions. It is a "hustling" place, in marked contrast 
with when the Hudson's Bay Company held sway. The 
Canadian Government " officially encourages to proceed 
to Western Canada those only who purpose going on the 
land, and for such the attractions of Western Canada, 
as well as of Ontario, are unexcelled. 

Manitoba is the most easterly of the three prairie 
provinces, and the smallest, having an area of 65,000 
square miles, or a little more than the size of England 
and Wales. It is sometimes called " the postage-stamp 
province," owing to its square formation. A considerable 
part is made up of Lakes Winnipeg, Manitoba and 
Winnipegosis, these being noble stretches of water on its 
northern boundaries. 

The eastern part has a broken surface, is heavily wooded 
and but sparsely settled. It is known to contain valuable 
minerals. It is computed that the province contains 
some twenty-seven million acres of arable land, only 
about one-sixth of which is now under the plough. 
These lands lie mainly in the western and southern portions. 
In the latter districts the prairie is, generally speaking, 
level, with clumps of timber following the courses of the 
rivers. In the west there is a more interesting country, 
of an undulating character, with frequent growths of 
poplar, elm and oak, and in the Riding and Duck Moun- 
tains there are timber reserves of an extensive character. 

69 

6— (2137) 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Much of the province is fuUy occupied, and has all the 
appearance of an established and well-developed agricul- 
tural country. The main lines of the Canadian Pacific 
Railway, the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway and the 
Canadian Northern Railway pass through it, and send 
out branches in all directions, giving admirable trans- 
portation facilities to practically all the province, or 
at any rate to all the settled parts of it. The railways 
push out their branches and connections sometimes in 
advance of the settlers, and give a remarkably good 
service having regard to the age of the country. 

With the assistance of the local government, telephones 
are installed not only in the towns but throughout the 
rural districts, whilst all the towns and many of the 
villages of the province are provided with electric light. 

The product for which the province is justly famous 
is its " hard wheat," which is known in all the chief 
markets of the world. The deep rich loam, lying very 
generally upon a heavy clay subsoil, appears to contain 
the exact elements making for the production of the 
wheat so much prized by the millers. The way in which 
this soil retains its fertiHty is remarkable, and with reason- 
ably good methods of farming it is practically inex- 
haustible. There are farms along the Red River in 
Manitoba that have been cropped for over a generation, 
and still produce heavy crops of " No. 1 Hard." The 
average yield of wheat per acre for the province in 1909 
was about seventeen bushels, and the average price per 
bushel which it realised was eighty -seven cents. The 
cost of sowing, harvesting and marketing the grain has 
befen estimated at six dollars per acre, and even assuming 
eighty-seven cents per bushel, as in 1909, to be a higher 
price than might be ordinarily expected still, when it is 
remembered that land can be purchased freehold for from 
eight dollars an acre upwards, the possibilities of profitable 
farming in Manitoba are seen to be excellent. 

70 



MANITOBA 

Oats and barley thrive and yield amazingly. Oats 
frequently weigh from five to fifteen poimds per bushel 
more than the prescribed standard, and the ordinary 
crop yields from forty to eighty bushels an acre. Barley, 
both six-rowed and two-rowed, is of exceptionally fine 
quality, and flax (linseed) is produced in large quantities, 
but its injurious effect upon the land prevents it becoming 
a favourite crop with the farmers. 

In 1909 some five million acres were under plough in 
Manitoba. Upon this were raised 44,915,887 bushels 
of wheat, 54,947,320 bushels of oats, 15,626,208 bushels 
of barley, and 206,350. bushels of flax. The total grain 
crop for 1909 was 115,695,765 bushels. In addition 
there were large crops of roots, cultivated grasses, and 
natural prairie hay, 

Manitoba, however, must not be regarded as exclusively 
a wheat-growing country. Stock-raising and dairying 
are being profitably followed. Cattle-raising is especially 
profitable, and there is a splendid home market. Some 
eighty thousand head are required annually for home 
consumption. 

Realising the importance of this the Provincial Govern- 
ment has established in Winnipeg for many years a 
Dairy School, which is well attended in the winter by 
the sons and daughters of the farmers. It is admirably 
equipped, and here many of those now in charge of the 
creameries and butter factories throughout the West 
have received their training. Residents of Manitoba 
are eligible to attend this school without payment of 
fees. 

The pastures of Manitoba afford a variety and an 
abundance of suitable grasses, with ample and excellent 
watering facilities for the stock, and for use in the dairies, 
in many places streams of pure running water being at 
hand. 

Small fruits flourish in Manitoba. Currants (black, 

71 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

red and white), gooseberries, raspberries, cranberries, 
strawberries, blueberries, cherries, plums and wild plums 
yield abundantly, and most of these varieties, regularly. 

At the Convention of Manitoba market-gardeners, Dr. 
Thompson, a successful fruit-grower, contended that in 
no country could small fruits be grown with less trouble 
than in Manitoba. There, were few insect pests or 
diseases to interfere with their growth. 

The capability of the prairies to produce " hard wheat " 
is conceded everywhere, but the most optimistic Westerner 
would not have said that apples could have been grown 
there until recent years. However, " the proof of the 
pudding is in the eating," and Mr. Stevenson, of Nelson, 
Manitoba, had from his orchard there in 1909 about a 
hundred barrels of apples, which sold for $450, one tree 
producing no less than five barrels. That is an excellent 
yield in a district which people never looked to for fruit 
of this kind. Production it is true is only on a limited 
scale at present, and while nobody pretends that Manitoba 
is going to compare in this respect with British Columbia, 
Ontario, or Nova Scotia, the result of Mr, Stevenson's 
enterprise is very significant. An exhibit of fourteen 
different varieties of apples produced in Manitoba sent by 
this gentleman to the Show of the American Apple 
Society, won the silver medal given to each province 
displaying an exhibition of merit. Mr. Stevenson has 
also produced a good crop of plums and cherries. 

Apples in limited quantities are grown successfully 
in many parts of the province, and those who have 
carefully studied the question look forward to the time 
when the production will greatly increase and be an 
important factor in supplying local demands. 

Ornamental trees and shrubs also do well, and many 
of the farmers have their homesteads surrounded by 
beautiful plantations which not only beautify but afford 
shelter from the summer suns and the winter winds. 

72 



LUXURIANCE OF VEGETATION 

The Dominion Government supplies from the Experi- 
mental Farms fifteen hundred trees to each applicant 
owning a farm in Western Canada. These are delivered 
in good condition at the nearest station free of cost, the 
farmer on his part undertaking to care for the trees, 
which as a matter of fact grow very readily and require 
but little attention. 

The long summer days that ripen the crops in so short 
a time also make it possible for the bees to store freely 
quantities of honey. The luxuriance of the vegetation 
and the increasing cultivation of varieties of clover make 
bee culture both easy and profitable. An apiary of ten 
hives started four years ago has increased to one hundred 
and five, and produced nine thousand pounds of honey, 
and in the interval twenty-five hives have been sold. 
Within the province itself there is a large market for the 
honey, which is of excellent quality. Bee-keeping has 
passed beyond the experimental stage, and honey has 
become one of the notable products of the prairies. 

Little more than a generation ago Winnipeg, the capital 
of Manitoba, was but a Hudson's Bay Post, known as 
Fort Garry. In 1870 its population was 215 ; in 1909, 
according to the local census, it had swollen to 130,000, 
and is steadily increasing and bids fair so to continue 
for long years to come. Winnipeg is not only the railway 
centre of Western Canada, but it also controls the whole- 
sale and jobbing trade of the Great West, and every 
branch of enterprise is represented there. It has most 
extensive stockyards and immense abattoirs which are 
necessary to enable cattle and meat shipments to 
Europe and to other markets to be dealt with. The 
yards of the Canadian Pacific Railway Company at 
Winnipeg are the largest in the world operated by one 
company, and contain one hundred and twenty miles 
of track. It is a most important railway point from 
which both East and West, and South and North may be 

73 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

reached. As has already been indicated, branch hnes 
run to every part of the province, and a branch of the 
Canadian Pacific Railway connects with the " Soo " 
Line at Emerson, thus affording a direct and easy route 
to St. Paul, Minneapolis and Chicago. 

The Canadian Northern Railway Company has a 
line running parallel to this, and connecting with the 
Northern Pacific Railway at Pembina. There is also 
a branch running south via Gretna, connecting with the 
Great Northern Railroad System of the United States. 
It is also an important centre for the Grand Trunk 
Pacific Railway. 

Winnipeg is not only the commercial centre of Western 
Canada, but is the political and educational headquarters 
as w^ll. Here are to be found the Legislative and 
Departmental Buildings of the Manitoba Government ; 
the chief Immigration, Lands and Timber Offices for the 
West of the Dominion Government ; the Provincial 
University ; indeed all the principal institutions of the 
country of whatever character are to be found in the 
Metropolis of Manitoba. 

In addition to Winnipeg there are several towns of 
importance, such as Portage la Prairie and Brandon, 
both of which are important railway junctions and 
distributing points for large areas of imexcelled farming 
country. All over the country are towns and villages 
of more or less importance, with populations ranging 
from five hundred to five thousand. In these places 
will be found all that contributes to the amenities of 
life, and they constitute the homes of as happy and 
contented and as prosperous a people as is to be found 
anywhere. 

The superficial area of the Province of Saskatchewan 
is 229,229 square miles, or 91,691,600 acres. When 
early in the autumn of 1909 it was announced that the 
wheat crop of Saskatchewan would approximate to some 

74 



PROVINCE OF SASKATCHEWAN 

sixty million bushels it was regarded by many as gross 
exaggeration. Later on, however, it was officially 
confirmed that 3,912,499 acres cropped with wheat in 
that year in Saskatchewan produced seventy million 
bushels, an average of eighteen bushels to the acre, and 
this crop realised $61,269,703. Of the above 630,000 
acres were virgin prairie a year before. Practically 
the whole of Central Saskatchewan is admirably suited 
to wheat-growing. This territory is principally drained 
by the Saskatchewan, North Saskatchewan and Qu' 
Appelle Riveirs. The northern part of the province, with 
an area of some 70,000 acres is very thinly settled. The 
south-eastern portion embraces the great wheat plains 
of Moose Jaw and Regina, and these of course lie contig- 
uous to Manitoba. South-western Saskatchewan is a 
magnificent cattle country, and the writer has often seen 
in this district beasts fit for the butcher's block grazing 
in a profusion of unrivalled pasturage in which the wild 
vetch and the wild pea vine were prominent. 

Although the Saskatchewan crop returns of 1909 caused 
astonishment, yet things in this respect are only at their 
very beginning. The provincial authorities have divided 
the province for statistical purposes into crop districts, 
and these districts comprise a total area of 73,171,780 
acres. The total area of the grain crop in 1909 was but 
6,888,000 acres. There can be no need to dwell upon 
this point, and the significance of the facts having regard 
to the future of this great Province will be conceded 
on all hands. 

Many of the general facts which have been set forth 
in respect of Manitoba apply equally to Saskatchewan. 
There is a similar richness of soil and of climate, making 
for the perfect and rapid ripening of the crops, and the 
severity of the winter gives to a large extent immunity 
from injurious insects. 

Naturally the older settled portions of Saskatchewan 

75 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

lie along the Canadian Pacific Railway, where is to be 
found the famous wheat district of Indian Head, and 
both here and in the Regina district may be found 
farms which have been under crop for a quarter of a 
century. 

The character of the buildings erected on many of 
these farms is the best evidence of the prosperity which 
has attended the efforts of the owners. There are to 
be seen beautiful homes, surrounded and adorned by 
attractive plantations, neat fences and many other signs 
of proud proprietorship and prosperity. All along the 
main line of the three railway systems to which reference 
has been made are towns and villages where are rows of 
high grain elevators (warehouses), which if somewhat 
ungainly are substantial evidences of the enormous 
grain production which is the feature of the country. 

Like her sister province of Manitoba, Saskatchewan is 
served by railway systems which cover what must be 
regarded as an extraordinary extent of the new country 
when it is borne in mind that a generation ago it was 
practically uninhabited. 

But the end of railway construction is not yet. 
Throughout the province branch lines are contemplated 
and actually under construction in many directions, 
and these will bring all the settled districts within 
reasonable reach of the railway. 

A recent and interesting feature of the development 
of this province is that not very long ago the plains west 
and south of Moose Jaw, which were considered to be 
fit only for ranching, are to-day being rapidly taken up 
by substantial farmers, many of them from^ the United 
States, who by the adoption of what is known as " dry 
farming " are transforming these plains into vast wheat 
fields. The districts of Weyburn, Yellow Cross, Estevan 
and others along the " Soo " Line were at one time 
regarded as the western limit to the wheat-growing area 

76 



"DRY FARMING" 

of Southern Saskatchewan. To-day these places are 
the centres of important grain-growing districts. 

There are still large areas where the " land hunter " 
may go and with ordinary industry and prudence repeat 
the prosperous experiences which have been cited. 

Stock-raising is general throughout the province. The 
animals require shelter during the winter. In many 
parts of the province natural conditions render it 
eminently suitable for mixed farming and dairying. 
There is a splendid market for butter, especially during 
the winter months, and in recent years the supply has 
not been equal to the" demand. Co-operative dairying 
is gradually progressing, and the creameries now in 
operation are being well supported. There are indica- 
tions that farmers are regarding this movement with 
more and more favour. Most of the creameries are 
under the direction of the Department of Agriculture 
of the Provincial Government at Regina. This Depart- 
ment supervises generally all business transactions 
relating to the operation of the creameries, with the 
assistance of local Boards of Directors. The butter is 
sold by the Department and twice monthly cash is ad- 
vanced on cream delivered by the farmers. Such advances 
are based upon the wholesale price of butter at the time, 
and are forwarded regularly even if the butter is not sold. 
This payment constitutes an advance only, and twice in 
each year the season's business is balanced up, only the 
actual cost of manufacturing being debited to the patrons. 

The establishment of the Province is of such a recent 
date that there has been no time for the growth of great 
industrial centres. Although this is the case there are 
already many towns of importance which seem destined 
to repeat the expansion which has taken place in older 
communities. Regina, the capital of the province, has 
a population of about 13,500. This town is growing 
rapidly, and will unquestionably become an important 

77 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

city. Those who preside over its destinies have done 
so with an efficiency which is much to be commended, 
and by their enterprise have done wonders on Regina's 
behalf. 

Prince Albert, with a population of some 8,000, is 
situated on the Saskatchewan River about the centre of 
the province. It is the centre of a charming district, 
well wooded and watered, and offering great attractions 
to the immigrant in search of a home. 

Moose Jaw is an important business centre on the 
Canadian Pacific Railway, and has a population of some 
13,000. It is in one of the great wheat sections to which 
reference has already been made. Moose Jaw is a railway 
junction of importance. 

Saskatoon, the rival of Regina, has a population of 
about 13,000. It is a thriving town and the seat of the 
University of Saskatchewan. 

In addition to the above, the Province is dotted 
throughout with towns and villages, built up by people 
who are comparatively recent arrivals in the country, 
and find within them profitable occupation for their 
energies, and opportunities for themselves and their 
children not available elsewhere. 

We have seen that the size of Manitoba as at present con- 
stituted is a little more than that of England and Wales, 
but in approaching the most westerly of the prairie provinces 
Alberta we find that it has a superficial area equal to 
about twice the size of the British Isles, and larger than 
either France or Germany. Within its boundaries are 
diversified natural resources upon a noble scale. 

The two prairie provinces with which we have already 
dealt wiU in all human probability have to depend for 
any pre-eminence in a large measure upon their agricultural 
resources. Nature, however, has so bountifully endowed 
Alberta that as time goes on not only is she destined to 
become the home of millions of contented and prosperous 

78 



IRRIGATION OF SOUTHERN ALBERTA 

farmers, but it seems almost equally certain that her 
great coal and other resources will enable her to provide 
for a great industrial population. In the meantime, 
let it be borne in mind that this magnificent kingdom 
has at present a population of, approximately, only some 
three hundred thousand. In contemplating this one 
irresistibly speculates upon the future, and he would 
be indeed a mean-hearted British citizen not to be filled as 
he dwells upon the subject with glowing anticipation and 
pride of possession. 

Elsewhere under the heading, " The Undeveloped 
North," the more remote districts have been dealt with 
— that vast stretch from Athabaska Landing northward, 
embracing the noble valleys of the Athabaska and Peace 
Rivers. At the moment we shall dwell more particularly 
with that part of this province where closer settlement 
prevails. 

In common with the rest of the Canadian prairies the 
soil of Alberta is admittedly of the richest. In Southern 
Alberta, from the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains, we 
find the land sloping away eastward into prairie of noble 
dimensions. At one time given up almost exclusively 
to ranching, particularly to horse-ranching, for it is a 
great horse country, we now find a rapid expansion of 
grain-growing, dairying and mixed farming. 

As the prairies to the eastward have become famous 
for their hard spring wheats, so Southern Alberta is 
become known as a great producer of winter wheat. 
Irrigation, making both for regularity and abundance 
of production, has been adopted with most gratifying 
results, notably in the Calgary and Lethbridge districts 
where the Canadian Pacific Railway Company owns 
three million acres of the rich Bow River valley lands, 
and has undertaken the largest irrigation system in the 
Western Hemisphere, and land which a comparatively 
few years ago possessed but a nominal prairie value is 

79 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

to-day in good demand at from twenty dollars an acre 
and upwards. In 1900 the area seeded for winter wheat in 
Southern Alberta was less than five hundred acres ; in 
1909 it was 305,000 acres, and the increase still goes on. 
The yield of this wheat is extraordinary, frequently 
amounting to forty bushels- per acre, and in abnormal 
cases to sixty bushels per acre. Alberta red wheat ranks 
high in the world's markets. Not long ago no one dreamt 
that it could be grown in Southern Alberta, and yet an 
exhibit of this variety took the gold medal at the Portland 
(Oregon) Exhibition in competition with the best products 
of the United States. The great advantage of this 
crop to the grain-grower is that it ripens earlier than 
spring wheat, being usually harvested early in August, 
and in this way not only escaping climatic dangers, but 
also enabling it to be saved in the pink of condition. 
Speaking of these conditions Professor Thomas Shaw 
writes :— 

" When I passed over this road only a few years ago, 
only a few fields of grain were discernible along the entire 
road. At the present time one cannot look out of the 
car window, save in limited areas, without seeing excellent 
crops of grain on every hand. These crops consist very 
largely of winter wheat and oats, but spring wheat is 
also grown, as well as speltz and barley, both of the 
beardless and hull-less varieties. The wheat crop, however, 
is in the ascendant. 

" This marvellous development has been brought about 
mainly by the uncommon adaptation which it was found 
that the country possessed for growing winter wheat. 
The yields of some of these crops have been such as to 
seem almost beyond credibility, and the instances in 
which these yields have been obtained have been so 
many, that the statements made in regard to them cannot 
be challenged. Thirty bushels per acre is a very moderate 
yield. Forty bushels is quite common. Fifty bushels 

80 



CONDITION OF GRAIN-GROWING 

is not infrequent, and as high as sixty-five bushels an 
acre have been threshed from large fields. That there 
should have been a rush for these lands as soon as their 
producing powers became known is in no sense surprising. 
The rapidity of the increase of production along this line 
of road is probably without a parallel in the history of 
agricultural development in the entire West. In 1908 
the shipment of wheat per mile of road was 60,000 bushels 
from Granum to High wood, fifty-four miles." 

In respect of the country further north, and roughly 
speaking tributary to those towns between Calgary and 
Edmonton, we find a park-like country which is proving 
■greatly attractive to large bodies of new settlers, and 
especially those coming from the United States. Mr. 
John Arthur Fixon, a well-known American agricultural 
authority, and the editor of Home Life, who may be 
deemed to be an impartial critic, wrote after investigation 
in Central Alberta, as follows : — 

" An excellent country for farming and grazing is 
found in central Alberta between Calgary and Edmonton. 
It is park-like, with wide expanses of fertile soil between 
the wooded tracks. Grasses grow with luxuriance all 
through this district, and the grain yields are surprisingly 
large. I saw wheat which would go as high as 50 to 55 
bushels per acre ; oats as high as 80 bushels per acre, 
and barley 60 to 70 bushels per acre. Root crops of all 
kinds do well. For stock raising this district is of unusual 
adaptability. There are plenty of ranges and sheltered 
woods for cattle and sheep. The hay product throughout 
all of central Alberta is large enough to support many 
times the number of cattle and other animals that are 
now raised there. At the experimental farm at Lacombe, 
I saw in an astounding measure what the soil will do. 
Alfalfa, the great restorer of fertility to the soil, made 
a remarkably good showing. Strawberries and other 
berries, small fruit and apples, were grown there in a 

81 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

manner that showed there is a great future along this 
Hue. Experiments were being made with various grains 
that will mean great additions to the wealth of the farmers 
of Alberta. One who seeks his fortune in central Alberta 
and uses the soil rightly cannot fail." 

In dealing with this subj-ect important mention must 
be made of the live stock industry. The Province of 
Alberta occupies a position in Canada equivalent to that 
of the State of Kentucky in the United States in regard 
to horse-breeding. Its high altitude, dry atmosphere, 
short and comparatively mild winters, nutritious and 
well-watered pastures, render it exceedingly well adapted 
for horse-breeding, and the Western horse is noted for 
its ejidurance and freedom from disease. We find all 
the well-known breeds of horses represented on the 
Alberta farm and ranch. Heavy draught horses find 
a ready sale at high prices ; horses weighing from twelve 
to fourteen hundredweight realise £80 per pair and some- 
times more, and even lighter horses of less quality fetcli 
£60 and upwards per pair. Altogether conditions and 
circumstances are such as to enable the Alberta farmer 
to raise horses most advantageously. The great 
agricultural expansion of the West is bound to continue 
to provide a certain market. 

The bunch grasses of the prairie, occurring as they do 
on the ranges, turn out beef cattle which almost compare 
with those stall-fed on grain. A train-load of four-year- 
old steers after being driven one hundred and forty miles 
and shipped by railway to Montreal, two thousand three 
hundred miles, weighed at the end of the journey on an 
average 1,385 lbs. each. For all suitable cattle that can 
be produced there is a good market. Alberta supplies 
the Province of British Columbia and the Yukon Territory, 
as well as a large export demand. 

Much attention has been devoted to securing the best 
breeds, with the result that the range cattle of Western 

82 



LIVE STOCK INDUSTRY 

Canada are the best procurable of their kind. At Calgary 
cattle sales take place annually in April, which attract 
stockmen from great distances. These men come to this 
centre from near and far afield to purchase their bulls. 
Shorthorns, Herefords, Polled Angus and Galloways are 
the chief beef breeds, while for dairying purposes Holsteins 
and Ayrshires are often to be seen. 

The rearing of sheep is also an increasingly important 
industry. There is a good market for both mutton and 
wool. It would seem certain that eventually woollen 
mills will become established in the West. At present, 
however, the production of sheep is quite inadequate 
to the demand. A year or two ago the demand from the 
Manitoba market completely absorbed the available 
supply in Alberta, and after that found it necessary to 
draw upon Ontario for a large number. The demand in 
British Columbia and the Yukon is bound to expand, so 
that it is reasonable to say that there is a great future 
for the sheep farmer in Alberta. 

The Honourable Sydney A, Fisher, the Canadian 
Minister of Agriculture, has had his attention drawn to 
the shortness of the sheep supply not only in Alberta 
but throughout Canada, and at the present time a 
Departmental investigation is taking place with a view 
to placing before the farmers of Canada facts which will 
bring home to them the profitable prospects that exist 
for sheep-breeding, and will advise as to the particular 
breeds which will best suit the different localities. 

Much might be said as to the attractive prospects 
which exist for the farmer in hog-raising, in tlie dairy 
and poultry industry and in other directions in this 
great country, but we must pass on and deal with the 
more general features. 

Edmonton is the capital of the province. It is 
situated on the Saskatchewan River, and has a popula- 
tion of about 28,000 or more. It is the distributing centre 

83 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

for the northern districts, and the centre for the fur 
trade of the North. The Provincial Legislative Buildings 
of Alberta will be found here. Edmonton controls all 
its public utilities, including the system of street railways. 
On the south bank of the river is the town of Strathcona, 
with a population of some ,4,000. It is the seat of the 
University of Alberta. One might suppose that sooner 
or later it will become incorporated with its near 
neighbour. 

Calgary is often regarded as the commercial mxCtropolis 
of the Middle West, and is a rapidly growing city of some 
30,000 inhabitants. Calgary has many notable manu- 
facturing establishments with an output amounting to 
millions of dollars annually. The town operates its 
electric light and power plant, and its system of street 
railways. It is an important centre for the activities 
of the Canadian Pacific Railway, who have here the 
headquarters of their British Columbia Land Department 
and their Irrigation Department. 

Medicine Hat is another thriving town with a popula- 
tion of some 5,000, situated on the banks of the South 
Saskatchewan River. This town has a natural gas supply 
which is used to heat and light the business places as 
well as the private houses. The citizens of Medicine 
Hat look forward with assurance to its becoming an 
important manufacturing centre, owing, as has been 
indicated, to the exceptional advantage of a natural 
gas supply. 

Lethbridge is a town of nearly twelve thousand 
inhabitants in the extreme south of the province, in the 
centre of the magnificent Southern Alberta wheat-fields. 
The town has at the present time five large coal mines, two 
of which have a daily output of twelve hundred tons each. 
It is destined to be the centre of an important manu- 
facturing industry. Lethbridge owns its electric light 
and power plant, water and sewerage system. 

84 



"DAZZLING PROSPECTS" 

Although the foregoing pages dealing with Western 
Canada do so in by no means an exhaustive manner, 
still enough has been said to give some idea of the vast 
extent of the resources and the general conditions existing 
there. 

The three prairie Provinces together have a superficial 
area of 578,190 square miles, of which the prairie area is 
about 200,000 square miles. Of this up to the present 
there are under cultivation only some 18,750 square miles, 
or 12,000,000 acres. The population in 1909 was 
1,081,000. 

The dazzling prospects which this country presents 
to the land worker who is prepared to commit himself 
to a life of continuous but not necessarily arduous toil, 
and what widespread effects will be broughtjabout by 
the certain expansion, have already to a partial extent 
been made evident ; and although to-day the country is 
only in its early infancy the manufacturers of Eastern 
Canada, who have for some years been increasing their 
facilities as rapidly as possible, find even so they are 
scarcely able to meet the demands made upon them by 
the West. In these three Provinces it is estimated that 
there are some 171,000,000 acres of land suitable for profit- 
able farming. As has been shown, but a fraction of this 
is under cultivation. There are vast tracts of fertile 
soil awaiting the coming of the suitable settler. Such a 
man locating on the virgin prairie at midsummer, will 
find that if he exercises ordinary industry, and if the 
season be an average one, that with one pair of horses 
or oxen it will be possible to prepare, say, forty acres 
ready for wheat during the first summer. Under average 
conditions there should be a yield in the following season 
of say a thousand bushels (125 quarters) of the finest 
milling wheat in the world. In addition to this, he will 
probably produce a sufficiency of grain and food for stock, 
to meet the needs of his homestead. Nine-tenths of his 

85 

7— (2137) 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

wheat crops he will be in a position to sell. Placing the 
settler's capital at £100, the proceeds of the first year's 
wheat crop at an average price — say sixty cents a bushel 
— will enable him to realise an amount greater than his 
working capital. As the partial average result of one 
year's work on wild prairie land of a man with this small 
capital, the contiguous railway is furnished with some 
54,000 pounds of wheat freight, and the Canadian manu- 
facturer is called upon to supply at least a plough, a wagon, 
a binder, and other tools costing about £70 ; that is, of 
course, in addition to the other products necessary for 
the settler's home. This is a striking result of the efforts 
of a single settler, with meagre capital, for only one 
year? Many of the new settlers from the United States 
bring with them several teams of horses, and instead of 
preparing forty acres during their first season in the 
country, we find them " ripping up " two and even 
three hundred acres in the same time. Nowhere else 
can wealth from the soil be produced so readily, and this 
is the foundation of the great expansion now proceeding 
in Canada. 

The enormous acreage of these Provinces, practically 
all arable, and most of it in point of fertility not to be 
excelled, points with certainty to Western Canada quickly 
becoming a great factor in world affairs. As has been 
indicated the wealth of these Territories lies mainly in 
their agricultural resources, the surest and most per- 
manent foundation upon which any nation can rest. 
Very wisely the Canadian Government invites to these 
estates only those who intend going on the land, they 
need not necessarily be experienced agriculturists, the 
development promoted by these will in turn bring the 
commercial and professional classes. 

Of the 171,000,000 acres of cultivable land only a little 
over fourteen million acres were in cultivation in 1910. 
To show how rapid the expansion is it may be mentioned 

86 



CULTIVABLE LAND 

that 1,254,000 acres were " broken " to the plough 
during the year 1909 alone. 

For many years wheat-growing within this area was 
regarded as more or less experimental. Since then the 
question has been put beyond doubt, and people have 
poured into the country in numbers that steadily increase 
from year to year, as the following figures relating to the 
immigration into the North-West will conclusively show : — 

Year ending June 30, 1901 49,149. 

1905 146,266. 

Nine months 1906 189,064. 

ending March 31, 1907 124,667. 

Year ending March 31, 1908 264,908. 

1909 146,908. 

1910.. 208,794. 

The Dominion Census of 1901 showed that the popula- 
tion of the three prairie Provinces was then about 
400,000, which figure rose to 808,863 at the North-West 
Census of 1906, and the population is now placed at 
1,081,000. 

In 1896 the export of wheat was under eight million 
bushels ; in 1909 it was over sixty million bushels. 

Ontario 
The history of this Province dates back to the time 
when the country was first settled by the United Empire 
Loyalists who migrated from the States to the south 
at the close of the War of Independence. At that time. 
Upper Canada, as it was then called, was unbroken forest, 
but to-day it is the most populous Province of the 
Dominion of Canada with over two and a half millions of 
people. Ontario has an estimated area of two hundred 
thousand square miles exclusive of that portion of the Great 
Lakes lying within the international boundary. From 
east to west it is over a thousand miles in breadth stretch- 
ing from the Quebec boundary on the east as far as the 

87 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

eastern boundary of Manitoba, and its length from its 
southern boundary to the shores of James Bay on the 
north is 750 miles. This great Territory is irregular 
in shape, and may be roughly divided geographically 
into three sections — eastern, western and northern. 
The eastern portion of the province is that lying between 
the Ottawa River and Lake Ontario. Western Ontario 
is the populous and fertile section lying to the north 
of Lake Erie and the west shore of Lake Huron. North- 
ern Ontario, or as it is sometimes called, New Ontario, 
comprises the four great districts Nipissing, Algoma, 
Thunder Bay and Rainy River lying to the north of Lake 
Superior and extending to the eastern boundary of 
Manitoba. 

Eastern and western Ontario are well supplied with 
railways, and have abundant facilities for transportation 
by water. It is here that most of the large cities and 
towTis are situated, among them being Toronto, Hamilton, 
London, Kingston and Brantford. The southern portion 
has been described as the garden of the Province. It is 
of great fertility and suited by soil and climate to farming 
in all its branches. The chmate is tempered by the 
proximity of the Great Lakes, and the winter is shorter 
and milder compared with many other parts of the 
Dominion. The apple orchards are most productive, 
and peaches, grapes, pears, plums and various varieties 
of small fruits are grown in the open in abundance. 
Tobacco is also cultivated. 

Although the Province of Ontario has enormous 
sources of wealth in its lands, forests, mines, fisheries and 
manufactures, agriculture has always been and is likely 
to remain its most important industry. The returns 
of the Bureau of Industries for 1909 show that the 
Province had 24,676,883 acres of assessed land, of which 
14,257,169 acres were cleared. The acreage under Fall 
Wheat was 663,375; Spring Wheat, 135,161; Barley, 



ONTARIO 

695,262; Oats, 2,695,585; Peas, 381,609; Beans, 45,029; 
Rye, 94,661 ; Buckwheat, 176,630 ; Corn for husking, 
322,789 ; Corn for Silo, 288,346 ; Potatoes, 169,695 ; Hay 
and Clover, 3,228,445. The acreage of orchard and small 
fruits was 324,978, and vineyards, 11,420. Of pasture 
(cleared land) there were in 1909, 3,160,780 acres. The 
number of horses on hand in the year 1909 was 728,308, 
valued at $87,682,689. ' 

In dairying, Ontario enjoys a well-deserved reputation 
for the high quality of the cheese, butter, milk and cream 
which have for years been produced in large quantities 
for export. The raising of hogs for bacon, pork packing, 
•fruit and vegetable canning are other branches in which 
great progress has been made. 

The greatest development in fruit growing has taken 
place in the Niagara Peninsula. There is here a ridge 
of high land running through the whole district between 
which and Lake Ontario grapes are grown as a field crop, 
and peach trees are planted out in orchards. In this 
section of the Province fruit-growing is carried on as a 
business by itself, not merely as an adjunct to farming. 
The large quantities of fruit — peaches, grapes, pears, 
plums, etc., despatched from the district each season 
are the best testimony to the fitness of the climate and 
soil for fruit cultivation notwithstanding that there are 
adjacent such extensive markets as cities like Toronto 
and Hamilton. Attempts are being successfully made to 
place Canadian peaches on the English markets where the 
apples of Ontario have for so long enjoyed a ready sale. 

The manufacturing industries of Canada are to a 
very large extent centred in Ontario, and by reason of 
the excellent position of the Province, the splendid 
railway and water transportation facilities, the almost 
unlimited supply of water-power and other advantages, 
it is safe to anticipate that they will continue to increase. 
Among the principal articles manufactured are furniture, 

89 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

sawn timber, wooden-ware of all kinds, iron and steel, 
engines and locomotives, hardware, agricultural imple- 
ments, sewing machines, cloth, linen, cotton and woollen 
goods, abrasive goods, boots and shoes, carriages and 
waggons, cement, food-stuffs, leather goods, paper, 
wood-pulp, etc. 

The commercial fisheries constitute a useful source 
of food supply and offer a livelihood to a considerable 
number of fishermen. White-fish, herring, trout, bass, 
pickerel, pike and sturgeon are among the fish to be found 
in the Great Lakes, while in many parts of the Province 
there are innumerable angling rivers where the best of 
sport is to be enjoyed. 

Wifh the progress of settlement, the forest land of 
southern Ontario has disappeared, but in the northern 
parts of the province there is what might be regarded as 
an " inexhaustible " quantity of timber, which furnishes 
material for many of the industries of the province, and 
supplies the large wood pulp mills which have been 
established. 

In view of the remarkable developments which have 
taken place since northern Ontario has been opened up, 
it is difficult to realise to-day that text-books of only 
a few years ago asserted that mining was not an industry 
of the province. The nickel-copper mines of the Sudbury 
region which lies to the north of Georgian Bay yielded in 
1909 over 450,000 tons of ore, and it is estimated that its 
contents were 13,141 tons of metallic nickel and 7,873 
tons of metallic copper. The total production of silver 
from the Cobalt mines beginning with 1904, when the 
first shipments were made, down to 1909 is valued at 
nearly thirty-three million dollars, and as showing the 
rapid and recent progress of the mineral industry of the 
province, it may be mentioned that while the total 
production in 1905 was valued at 17,854,296 dollars, in 
1909 the value had grown to nearly thirty-three million 

90 



BRITISH COLUMBIA 

dollars for the year. Besides the valuable silver deposits 
at Cobalt and elsewhere, gold, iron ore, petroleum, 
natural gas, iron pyrites, feldspar and Portland cement 
are among the mineral products of the Province, and as 
its resources become developed, with the opening up of 
new districts, it is certain that Ontario will occupy a 
leading position among the mineral producing countries 
of the world. 

For those possessing some means Ontario offers great 
attractions in all branches of industry, while " New 
Ontario " is full of opportunity for the poor man of the 
right character. 

British Columbia 

While it has in the past been customary to think and 
speak of British Columbia as a mountainous country, it 
is as well to bear in mind that since railway communication 
has been established the various resources of this western- 
most Province of Canada have been developed to a 
remarkable extent, and that when the projected railway 
extensions are completed, the country will occupy an 
even more prominent place in the public eye than it 
does at present. Its coast line on the Northern Pacific 
gives it a position of great commercial strategic 
importance. 

This Province, lying between the western prairie 
country and the Pacific Ocean, is the largest of the great 
divisions which make up the Dominion of Canada, its 
area being variously estimated at from 372,630 to 395,610 
square miles. From north to south it extends some 
seven hundred miles, and it has an average width of 
about four hundred miles. Vancouver Island, the largest 
of the archipelago of islands lying off the coast, is 285 
miles long and from 40 to 80 miles wide, covering an area 
of about 20,000 square miles. 

In a Province of such vast extent it will be readily 

91 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

understood that the climatic conditions are of a varied 
character, but taken as a whole the climate of the Province 
presents all the conditions met with in European countries 
lying within the temperate zone. Dr. Macoun, of the 
Dominion Geological Survey, has stated that British 
Columbia possesses a climate superior to that of England 
in every respect, both as regards heat and moisture. 
Along the Pacific littoral the rainfall is heavy as the 
result of the moisture-laden winds from the Pacific. 
Throughout the great inland plateau a much drier climate 
prevails, while in the northern interior the winter climate 
is more severe. In Vancouver Island and along the 
southern coast the climate corresponds very closely with 
that of England, and severe frost scarcely ever occurs 
in winj:er. 

The mining industry, by which the province is perhaps 
best known outside its borders, may be fairly said to 
be only in its infancy, although the mines have already 
produced over three hundred million dollars. Gold has 
been found since 1862, and silver, lead, iron, copper 
and other minerals are also found in abundance, and the 
well-known coal areas of Vancouver Island are, of course, 
of outstanding value. 

In timber the province of British Columbia is especially 
rich and the output of lumber is increasing rapidly. 
Apart from the Douglas fir, which attains immense 
proportions, especially in the coast regions, there are 
many other growths of great commercial value such 
as the hemlock, cypress, white spruce, red cedar, white 
pine, tamarac, balsam, yew, maple, cotton wood, etc. 
Great developments are certain to take place in the 
manufacture of wood pulp and paper, for the conditions 
will be favourable not only as regards the availability 
of raw material and power for the factories, but 
transportation facilities are rapidly improving. 

The fisheries of British Columbia, while important, are 

92 



A "SEA OF MOUNTAINS" 

still in a comparatively undeveloped state, although 
more attention is being drawn to their potentialities, and 
great developments will undoubtedly take place in the 
near future in connection with the deep sea fisheries. 
The remarkable salmon fisheries are well known, and are 
dealt with at length in another chapter. 

It is only in comparatively recent times that British 
Columbia has been looJs;ed upon as being in any sense a 
country suitable for settlement from an agricultural 
point of view, and although, compared with other Provinces 
of the Dominion, the area available might seem limited, 
yet it is now better understood than formerly that it 
has rich assets in its arable and pastoral lands. 
Those who know the province will resent the statement 
that it is a " sea of mountains," notwithstanding that 
a stranger who keeps to the present main railway line 
may be quite prepared to endorse it. Its beautiful 
valleys are becoming better known, and their fertility 
ascertained beyond question. Large numbers of settlers 
are profitably engaged in mixed farming and fruit-grow- 
ing, and the extent of the lands available for further 
cultivation, is considerable. Dairying and poultry- 
raising are found to pay well, and apart from the excellent 
markets in the cities and towns, the opening up of new 
mines and establishment of new industries provide 
splendid markets for such products. As regards oppor- 
tunities for the extension of fruit-growing, it has been 
estimated that there are at least a million acres south 
of the 52nd degree where aU the fruits of the temperate 
zone can be produced. Ten years ago there was not 
enough fruit grown to supply the local markets, but the 
industry is growing steadily, and is likely to become one 
of the most important in the Province. The subject has 
attracted much attention in Great Britain in recent 
years owing to the steps which have been taken to display 
the produce of the British Columbia orchards, and many 

93 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

prizes have been awarded to the official exhibits at the 
Royal Horticultural Society's shows and in the provinces 
since the annual displays were commenced in 1905. 
Besides apples, peaches and grapes are successfully grown, 
and more attention is being given to their cultivation as 
new areas suitable for the purpose are opened up. 



9A 



CHAPTER XI 

The Undeveloped North 

We have seen in foregoing pages the civilisation of 
Canada, starting in the east in Acadia, moving quickly 
westward to Quebec,- thence more slowly onward to 
Ontario, through Manitoba to British Columbia. We see 
in the network of railways which surround Winnipeg, in 
the closely dotted townships throughout that great middle 
belt the story of prosperity and civilisation advancing 
by leaps and bounds to the amenities of civilised life, 
brought home to the settlers by the branch lines which 
run north and south of the main systems. Above this belt 
the branch lines of railway do not run, and there are 
fewer named rivers. 

In the territory on the east of Hudson's Bay there is 
a space which would accommodate the British Isles, 
which is to all intents and purposes unexplored. There 
is a vast expanse, 350 miles from north to south, the 
interior of which, even on the large scale maps, is shown 
by white paper. 

To the west of the Hudson's Bay, between it and the 
Great Bear Lake, there are vast stretches of country 
which have seldom been trodden by the foot of civilised 
man, only awaiting the influx of population and transport 
to awaken them to such productiveness as has hardly 
been dreamed of. 

Spasmodically, and from time to time, this great no- 
man's-land has been prospected, and from official 
inquiries and private prospectors we are able to form 
some idea of the possibilities. 

To the east of Hudson's Bay and to the north of 
Quebec lies the territory of Ungava. It is separated 
from the northern portion of Quebec by a line drawn from 

95 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Hamilton Inlet on the coast of Labrador to the mouth 
of the Eastmaine River in Hudson's Bay, with slight 
deviations to follow the course of the Hamilton River 
and the Eastmaine River. The area of the district is 
about 355,000 square miles, and does not include the strip 
along the Atlantic coast which is under the jurisdiction 
of Newfoundland. 

Ungava is a large rolling plateau, from 1,000 to 2,000 
feet in height except in the north part where it becomes 
somewhat lower. The soil is generally sandy, except 
in the middle of the peninsula where it becomes much 
better, and is, in fact, possible for agriculture. Beyond 
the northern timber limit small shrubs and plants grow. 
Fairly good vegetables and potatoes can be grown along 
the Eastmaine River and at Hamilton Inlet, and here 
and there oats and barley can be produced ; but the coun- 
try will never be an agricultural country ; it is too cold, 
the soil is not suited to cereal crops, and there are no 
areas which could be called prairie land. Rocky, rough 
country is a fair description of Ungava. The climate is 
moderately cold even in summer time, the tree land 
stops short at a line drawn between Richmond gulf 
and the Leaf River which runs into Ungava Bay. White 
and black spruce, tamaracks and a few birch are to be 
found. Towards the head of Hamilton Inlet there is 
some good timber suitable for ships' masts. There is 
valuable timber in the valleys of all the rivers running 
into Hamilton Inlet. The strips of timber country are 
confined mainly to the streams in belts of half a mile to 
a mile on each side. There is some difference of opinion 
as to the value of the timber, but expert lumbermen say 
that if it is only properly preserved it will be very valuable, 
and that the Hamilton River country will in time be one 
of the most famous timber districts in Canada. Enormous 
areas of timber are burnt up by careless fishermen and 
settlers who light fires in the summer to dry fish for winter 

96 



UNGAVA 

use. These fires extend over large areas and many thou- 
sands of miles of valuable forest land have been burnt. 
In its present condition, Ungava is not a poor man's land, 
since means of communication are so bad, and the 
climate is not available for growing the necessities of life 
with any certainty, at all events on an economical scale. 
The country will probably have to await its awakening 
by some large concern which can take hold of the district 
in a wholesale fashion, providing its employees or settlers 
with supplies whilst they are carrying out the schemes of 
the company. 

The summers are short and the spring comes late. 
Even in the summer the climate is cold. In the interior 
during the summer time there are rain showers almost 
every day, and on the coast fogs are frequent. There 
are Hudson's Bay posts scattered about the territory, 
and the best skins in the world are obtained in Labrador. 
The marten is a cheap fur, but there are otter, fox, mink, 
black bear, and in the far north, white bear. The animals 
are trapped by the Indians and Esquimos and sold to the 
Hudson's Bay Company or to Revillon Freres, a French 
trading company which buys these furs from the trappers 
direct. The seal fisheries and the walrus fisheries in 
Hudson's Bay and Hudson's Strait occupy a good many 
adventurous fishermen, whilst the inland fisheries are 
a happy hunting-ground for the sportsmen, lake trout 
being caught there weighing as much as 50 or 60 lbs. 
White fish, pickerel, and the sucker are to be found in 
all the lakes, and salmon fisheries are also carried on in 
the district. 

The iron-bearing rock in Ungava is likely to prove a most 
important asset to this great northern territory. A large 
area of this extends from about the vicinity of the 
Hamilton River, northward to Ungava Bay direct in a 
straight line ; this belt is probably some 100 miles long 
and 200 or 300 miles wide south-east of the Bay. In 

97 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

addition, there are patches of iron ore on the west side of 
Ungava Bay and in other places. As a rule, these ores 
are not of a very high grade, but they run to 30 or 40%, 
while some of the Labrador ores run as high as 60%. 

It is highly probable that in the future these areas will 
come very much to the front: The only problem which 
confronts the pioneer is that of power and heat for his 
smelting works. There is neither coal, nor oil, nor 
natural gas in Ungava. There are, however, excellent 
water powers in the rivers. The falls at Hamilton Inlet 
are a good deal larger than Niagara Falls, and it is 
estimated that some 9.000,000 horse-power is running 
to waste daily, awaiting only the hand of man which 
shall tame it. It is quite possible that when this power 
has been harnessed the time \vi\\ have come for the 
development of the iron ore. 

At present the only means of communication is by 
canoe, following the waterways, and nothing weighty 
that can be of value in developing the district can at 
present be taken into or out of the country. 

West of Hudson's Bay 

To the west of Hudson's Bay another large area of the 
North- West territory is awaiting development. It is 
most convenient to consider this in two divisions. The 
first division includes the territory of Keewatin on the 
west of Hudson's Bay ; and the second is from the western 
boundary of Keewatin to the Rocky Mountains, including 
the northern portions of the provinces of Alberta and 
Saskatchewan, and the triangular portion of British 
Columbia east of the Rocky Mountains and the Great 
Mackenzie Basin. 

There is to the north of Lake Winnipeg an area of 
from 5,000 to 10,000 square miles of country adapted 
to agriculture. It is by no means such good country 
as is to be found to the south, and a large portion of it 



NORTH OF LAKE WINNIPEG 

is wooded, rocky, and swampy. There are, however, 
considerable patches of arable and pasture land, which, 
with the valuable inland fisheries and the mineral deposits 
promise considerable development for this territory. 

In the section with which we are dealing, wheat, barley, 
and a small amount of fruit and vegetables have been 
grown as far north as Norway House, on the north 
shore of Lake Winnipeg. Potatoes and turnips have 
been grown as far north as Fort Churchill on Hudson's 
Bay, where also cattle are bred and excellent butter 
is made. This must be regarded as somewhat excep- 
tional, since the north line of cultivation of the potato 
passes some distance to the south of Fort Churchill. 

Huronion rocks occur at intervals, and as is usual with 
this geographical formation, many good minerals are to 
be found. Copper pyrites, and different sulphides are 
to be found. There is, too, a large area near Front Lake 
of norite rock similar to the formation in which the nickel 
deposits of Sudbury are to be found. 

A large patch of the country in the northern part of 
Saskatchewan was prospected in 1908 by Mr. Frank 
Crean, whose report says that although the country is 
not entirely suitable for agricultural settlement through- 
out in its present state, it is capable of producing cereals 
and farm produce. When the swamps caused by lack 
of drainage have been cleared away the country will 
become much more healthy and certainly much more 
fruitful. At Portage Laloche, in latitude 56 degrees 
north, oats and barley have been grown at an altitude 
of 1,600 feet, and there are great possibilities of ranching 
along the river, where water and shelter are all at hand. 

Game of all kinds abounds, and the Indians engaged 
in hunting for the Hudson's Bay Company are prosperous 
as the result of their year's labour. Poplar trees are to 
be found all over this tract, and, following the well-known 
rule of the western prairie country, their presence indicates 

99 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

good land. Near to Fort Churchill lies a district of great 
promise in mineral wealth. 

It is to the great region north of the Saskatchewan 
valley and west of Keewatin which may broadly be 
described as the great Mackenzie Basin that the eyes of 
Canadian statesmen are turned for the future development 
of Canada, 

The settlements here, in comparison with its area, 
are quite insignificant in number and in extent, but they 
have already shown the enormous possibilities of the 
territory as an agricultural and industrial country. It 
is claimed that there is in the Peace River section of 
this country as much good agricultural land lit for settle- 
ment, ^nd as yet unexploited as is to be found settled 
in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. A careful 
estimate of the agricultural lands in this territory of the 
Mackenzie Basin places the area at not less than 
100,000,000 acres. 

To the average person it will be surprising that wheat, 
which is generally regarded as the valuable preserve of 
warm lands, can be grown quite near to the Arctic circle, 
where other conditions are favourable. It is a M'ell-known 
fact to all authorities that grain is produced more abun- 
dantly as it approaches its northern limit, and it is a fact 
too, that the human species, as well as the lower animals, 
are more fruitful in the north than they are in the south. 
This rule applies also to wheat ; and the nearer grain is 
growTi to its extreme north limit of production the better 
is the quality. Professor Saunders, twenty-five years ago, 
speaking before the Royal Geographical Society, showed 
his audience wheat grown in Kent and Surrey which 
contained an average of 4h grains to the fascicle, wheat 
grown at Ottawa which contained two to three grains, but 
wheat grown on the Peace River in 1875 contained five or 
six grains to the fascicle. Thus, if Ontario farmers, with 
their two or three grains to the fascicle can produce 

100 



SEVERE CLIMATE 

twenty-five bushels of wheat to the acre, those of the 
Peace River should be able to produce over forty bushels 
to the acre, granted that the same acre produced the same 
number of stalks. 

The climate is undoubtedly severe. At the same time 
the intensity of the winter cold has no effect on the 
vegetation of the country. 

The winter may be taken to be about as severe as that 
of Manitoba, but since the country is not so exposed, 
the cold winds are not so trying to either vegetation or 
stock. Spring arrives with the most astonishing regu- 
larity, between the 15th and 20th of April without 
exception. It comes leaping across the country from 
the west at the rate of 250 miles a day, and once begun 
the warm weather continues, and the heat increases until 
the middle of August. Naturally the spring begins late 
and the winter sets in early, but owing to the great length 
of the day between latitudes 56 and 65 degrees vegetation 
is influenced by the sun on an average eighteen hours out 
of the twenty-four, thus in this north region at least two 
hours a day more summer sunlight than in Southern 
Canada is given to promote growth, with the result that 
vegetation shows the most extraordinary rapidity of 
growth, an earlier maturity, and a very high quality. It 
has been proved that the coolness of the nights in June 
and the early part of July has a good deal to do with the 
wonderful productiveness of vegetables and cereals in this 
part of the country. 

The larger lakes and rivers seem to exert some influence 
in keeping off early summer and autumn frosts. Lac 
la Biche, on the heights above Edmonton, is notorious for 
the absence of autumn frosts. Isle de la Crosse post is 
another instance, and the reason ascribed in each case is 
the proximity of a large lake. There is a record of excep- 
tional and severe frost all through Manitoba on August 
18th which killed the potatoes, yet, on September 22nd of 

101 

S— (2137) 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

the same season potatoes were still found at the Isle de la 
Crosse, in latitude 56, green and unspoiled. 

A great asset of the Mackenzie Basin is the existence 
of what are known as the Chinook winds, which extend 
from St. Paul on the coast north-westerly right down the 
Mackenzie Valley. This part of the country has been 
noted for the northward curve of the summer isothermals. 
The explanation of these winds is that the rain clouds of 
the American interior are drawn up by the sun in the 
southern Pacific. They are floated up on the north-east 
trade winds, and when these strike the coast of America 
to the south of California they are so hot that they have 
no power to give out their moisture, but go eastward and 
westward, and, as they pass over the land, raise the normal 
temperature of the whole region. Following up this course 
we find that the isothermal crosses over the Salt Lake 
valley, and, still going north, enters Canada in the valley 
of the Kootena}^ and on the east side of the Rocky 
Mountains about the 114th meridian. From the boundary 
of British Columbia this current passes up the Kootenay 
and the Simil Kameem through the Cache Creek country 
and the Babine Lake and enters the Mackenzie valley 
with its sixty thousand square miles of fruitful soil. 
In the middle of April the Peace River, in latitude 56, 
will have its banks covered with spring flowers, whilst 
800 miles nearer the Equator no flowers are to be found. 
How far these Chinooks extend is still a matter for debate. 
They are mentioned by Sir John Richardson as existing 
near the Arctic circle, latitude 65, longitude about 115. 
They are to be found at Isle de la Crosse in latitude 56, 
and along the Peace and Smoky Rivers. What is certain 
is that the Chinook winds do not arise from local disturb- 
ances of barometric pressure, but a great indraft of moist, 
heated air in the nature of monsoons, drawn up, in the first 
place, from the south by the great American desert, and 
dispensed over the north during their course. 

102 



THE UNDEVELOPED NORTH 

Just as spring comes in from the west so winter comes 
racing westwards at the same rate of about 250 miles a day. 

Naturally the most serious drawback to this great 
North-West, at present, is its distance from the haunts of 
mankind, and the difficulty of transport. As soon, 
however, as merchandise in any quantity is produced 
there is for its conveyance an immense natural waterway 
in the Peace River, an enormous body of water which 
winds its slow way from 500 to 700 feet below the level 
of the surrounding country. Where it enters the Rocky 
Mountains it sinks a thousand feet in ten miles so neces- 
sitating a portage. For nearly 800 miles below the lower 
end of this portage the river is still navigable, varying 
between 500 and 1,000 yards in width, still 500 feet below 
the normal level of the surrounding country. At the 
lowest point, near the mouth, where mud-bars begin 
to take the place of the gravel bottom, the river becomes 
shallow, but might yet be fit for stern wheel or river 
steamers of six feet or less in draft. In November, the 
river is closed by ice, but reopens quickly with the advance 
of spring towards the end of April. 

The value of the Mackenzie as a mineral country is an 
ascertained fact, and many of the streams from the 
mountains northwards are auriferous. 

The Mackenzie also from its headwaters to the Arctic 
Ocean is navigable to suitable steamers. Already the 
Hudson's Bay Company's steamer from Fort Churchill 
has made its way down the Mackenzie River nearly to 
the mouth. There is no doubt that it could have got 
further to the Arctic Sea if it had had a pilot who under- 
stood the passage. According to Sir John Franklin 
the total length of the Mackenzie from its source to the 
Arctic Ocean is 1,037 miles. It is a large river, flowing 
from the Great Salt Lake, with an average width of over 
a mile, and it maintains that breadth practically from 
source to mouth. 

103 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

At Lac la Biche, where missionaries have set the 
example of cultivation, as they have nearly everywhere 
in the rest of the Mackenzie valley, there are excellent 
small farms round the lake, and Bishop Glut, in his evi- 
dence before a committee, considered that all the country 
round Lac la Biche and by the lesser Salt Lake, and all 
that on the Peace River and that on the Liard River was 
suitable for settlements. 

Lakes are innumerable in the basin of the great 
Mackenzie, and all of them abound in fish of different 
kinds and of great size. White fish, for example, weighing 
at least 31 lbs, small trout from 4 lbs. to 10 lbs., and large 
trout from 10 lbs. to 35 lbs have been taken. In Clear 
Lake pike have been caught weighing from 25 lbs. to 
351bs. 

Musk ox of great size inhabit this region, the moose 
and the elk are found all over the forest region, while 
the beaver, and waterfowl of innumerable variety exist 
throughout the Mackenzie Basin and on the Arctic coast 
in the summer. 

An interesting comparison of this country may be 
made with the Russian province of Vologda. This 
province is in the same latitude as the Peace River 
country ; its area is about 155,000 square miles, it is 
chiefly drained from the north, and is 750 miles in length 
and 350 miles in width. The Dwina River, which drains 
it, carries its produce to Archangel and thence by the 
White Sea, in the same fashion as might be done by the 
Mackenzie and the Arctic Sea. The winters are severe 
and the summers are warm in precisely the same fashion 
as in the north-west of Canada. In the province of 
Vologda are raised oats, barley, hemp, flax, and pulse. 
How much of this land there is in Canada must necessarily 
be a matter of guesswork, but it has been estimated that 
on the Peace River there are 25,000 square miles, in the 
Mackenzie valley, let us say, 25,000 square miles, in the 

104 



THE MACKENZIE RIVER 

headwaters of the Mackenzie and the Yukon west 
mountains another 30,000 square miles. That is to say, 
there is agricultural land sufficient to support a popula- 
tion of, say, 1,500,000 persons, and adding to this a quotum 
of fur-traders, men engaged in transport, store-keeping, 
trading, and so forth, one might say with moderation 
that this particular part of the country could support 
not less than 3,000,000 persons altogether. 

Sooner or later the pressure of population in the more 
southern provinces will start a stream of emigration to 
the north-west. To meet the needs of this stream, or 
indeed to encourage it, the railways will run branch 
lines or even main lines through the Mackenzie Basin, 
and before long this territory will enter upon an era 
of development. 



105 



CHAPTER XII 

British Diplomacy and Canada 

It is perhaps only natural that Canada should sometimes 
chafe at the limitations imposed upon her by the Constitu- 
tion, Of these limitations perhaps the most obvious and 
the most irksome to many Canadians is that which 
prevents the representatives of the people from negotiat- 
ing directly with foreign powers. The Canadian says, 
and with some reason, that he is able to manage his own 
affairs, and he goes a step further and doubts if his 
diplomatic affairs have always been well handled by the 
English statesmen to whom in the past they were 
entrusted. 

There are two views diametrically opposed to one 
another on this subject, but since the one we have 
mentioned is held by a very large number of Canadians 
it may be permissible to state, if not to endorse the 
attitude generally adopted in Canada as to some of the 
occasions on which England has taken in hand the affairs 
of the Dominion. 

In most cases the disputes which have arisen have 
been with Canada's continental neighbour, and the 
first of these began when the thirteen colonies separated 
themselves from the Mother Country, and the Treaty 
of Independence was in preparation. 

In March, 1782, on the fall of Lord North's ministry, 
the Rockingham administration came into power. Its 
policy was the ending of the war in America and the 
recognition of the revolting colonies. Shortly before 
forming the new government. Lord Shelburne intimated 
to Dr. Franklin, who was then diplomatic representative 
of the Congress of the United States in Paris, that he 
was anxious to secure a satisfactory settlement, and 

106 



■ TWO DIPLOMATISTS 

on Dr. Franklin's replying in friendly fashion, he des- 
patched, without informing his colleagues, a Mr. Richard 
Oswald to Paris with instructions to open informal 
negotiations for peace. 

Before entering upon a resume of the merits of the case 
let us glance at the map of North America as it was then. 
Bounded on the east b-y Nova Scotia we see the United 
States as they then were — a narrow strip of seaboard 
bounded on the west by the Alleghany Mountains. On 
the Western side of the North American Continent were 
the Spanish possessions which ran eastward as far as the 
Mississippi. This left a wedge some 400 miles wide driven 
down from the north between the Spanish possessions and 
the United States of America. 

Now Mr. Oswald, though apparently a most amiable 
gentleman, was entirely a novice in the diplomatic 
world. He had been a successful Scottish merchant of 
the City of London, but he was the last person in the 
world to match such able negotiators as Franklin, John 
Adams and Jay. To assist him was sent later an even less 
practised diplomatist in the person of a Mr. Vaughan. 
The American case was most ably prepared, and each of 
the negotiators made himself specially responsible for 
particular details. 

Dr. Franklin's project was no less than the cession of 
Nova Scotia and Canada to the United States. Mr. 
Jay desired the extension of the United States boundaries 
westward over the Alleghany Mountains to the Mississippi, 
so sweeping away the British Canadian territory which 
lay between the United States and the Spanish possessions. 
Mr. Adams represented the desires of the New Englanders 
for the Canadian fisheries ; and to meet these three 
skilled diplomatists went Mr. Oswald, whose chief recom- 
mendation was that he was introduced by Lord Shelburne 
to Dr. Franklin as " a pacifical man, conversant in those 
negotiations which are most interesting to mankind." 

107 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

At the outset Dr. Franklin handed to him a confidential 
memorandum which contained the proposition that 
Great Britain should volmitarily cede the whole of Nova 
Scotia and Canada to the United States. 

Had this memorandum been made public it would 
indeed have caused a storm, but it was not. On his 
return he reported to Lord Shelburne the result of his 
conversation, and handed to him Dr. Franklin's notes 
which later became known as the " Canadian paper." 

It is certain that Lord Shelburne, though he made no 
comment at the time, disapproved entirely of the pro- 
position ; but Mr. Oswald assumed his silence to be 
consent. At any rate, that appears to be the view 
conveyed to Dr. Franklin, who mentions in his diary 
that on his return to Paris Mr. Oswald reported his 
opinion that the affair of Canada would be settled to his 
entire satisfaction " towards the end of the treaty." 
The death of Lord Rockingham in England made Lord 
Shelburne prime minister, and this in turn led to the 
resignation of Mr. Fox. Thus Lord Shelburne was able 
to send his " pacifical man " as plenipotentiary, author- 
ising him to treat with the commissioners of the United 
States for the settlement of the questions at issue. 

France and Spain were both hostile to the extension 
of the United States to the Mississippi, and to the claims 
regarding the Canadian fisheries, and a confidential 
mission was sent to Lord Shelburne to amplify the 
French views. In April, 1782, the naval victory of 
Lord Rodney over the French fleet crippled the sea 
power of France and Spain, so eliminating one factor 
which had to be taken into consideration by the negotia- 
tors. British diplomacy was also assisted by a modified 
ultimatum agreed upon by the American Congress. The 
modified instructions said, " Although it is of the utmost 
importance to the peace and commerce of the LTnited 
States that Canada and Nova Scotia should be ceded, 

108 



AN UNCALLED-FOR SACRIFICE 

and more particularly that the equal common right of 
the United States to the fisheries should be guaranteed 
to them, yet a desire to terminate the war has induced 
us not to make the acquisition of these objects the 
ultimatum of the present occasion." 

The United States Commissioners, therefore, were 
quite aware before Mr. Oswald appeared that Congress 
had modified its instructions, but they did not exchange 
this knowledge for the confidences which he so readily 
poured into their ears. 

In the United States the outlook was extremely black, 
and there was no money in the treasury. The public 
credit was at its lowest ebb. Everything was in favour 
of a masterful pohcy on the part of the British, yet 
Britain had no man to pursue it. Mr. Oswald was 
supreme over Britain's greatest territorial possession. 

To-day it is amazing that such men should have been 
allowed such powers, the more so as we find Lord Shel- 
burne writing to Mr. Oswald a month before the Treaty 
was signed, saying, " I should act with great insincerity 
if I did not convey to you that I find it difficult to enter 
into the policy of all that you recommend upon the subject 
both of the fishery and of the boundaries." The negotia- 
tions were rendered even more favourable to the United 
States later on when Mr. Jay, whose particular business it 
was to gain control of the fisheries, persuaded Mr. 
Vaughan to return to England with the object of impres- 
sing Lord Shelburne with the strength of the American 
sentiment on this point. So disastrously successful was 
he that Lord Shelburne immediately consented to agree 
that the boundaries of Canada should be confined to the 
strip of territory along the St. Lawrence and Ottawa 
Rivers. Eventually a provisional Treaty was drawn up, 
to which Mr. Oswald agreed, and then sent it to the 
Shelburne ministry. 

Amongst the provisions were the following : — 

109 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

1. Independence, and a settlement of the boundaries 
between the thirteen states and the King's colonies. 

2. The cession to the thirteen states of that part of 
Canada which was added to it by the Quebec Act of 1774. 
These were considered as indispensable. 

Furthermore, Mr. Oswald reported that Dr. Franklin 
demanded half a million or more as indemnification to 
the sufferers of the United States for the destruction of 
their towns and property, and some sort of acknowledg- 
ment in an Act of Parliament that Britain sympathised 
with these misfortunes. 

3. American ships to be on the same footing as English 
ships in Great Britain. 

4. The surrender to Congress of every part of the 
remainder- of Canada, after the said reduction of territory 
to the limits preceding 1774. Great Britain to have 
full freedom of fishing and of imports and exports in 
general, free of duty. 

It was quite evident from Mr. Oswald's report that Dr. 
Franklin was putting on the screw, particularly in con- 
nection with the indemnity question. At first he had 
been content to reserve certain of the Canadian lands, 
and his proposal was that the land should be sold and the 
money applied for the relief of the sufferers on both 
sides. Later on, however, this demand had grown to 
one that " these backlands of Canada should be given 
up, and that a further sum of money, half a million or 
more, should be granted by Great Britain to Americans 
who had suffered from the war." 

This final exhibition of incapacity seems to have 
aroused even the sluggards of the English Cabinet. It 
was proposed that Oswald should be recalled, since they 
declared he was merely an additional negotiator on the 
American side. Lords Shelburne and Townshend , however, 
refused. 

Mr. Jay, with Oswald's consent, drafted the Treaty 

110 



BRITISH " CONCESSIONS " 

which was forwarded to London for submission to His 
Majesty. 

It provided for : — 

1. The Independence of the thirteen united states. 

2. The cession of nearly the whole of Canada, the 
boundary being from the Atlantic, on similar lines to 
those described in the final Treaty, as far as latitude 45° 
on the St. Lawrence. The line then crossed the river 
and ran westward to the south point of Lake Nipissing, 
thence directly to the source of the Mississippi. 

3. The right of the people of the United States to take 
fish of every kind in the British-Canadian waters where 
the inhabitants of both countries had been accustomed 
to fish previously. 

4. Free navigation of the Mississippi without, however, 
means of exit or entrance. 

The claims of the British Commissioners with regard 
to the payment of American debts to British merchants, 
compensation to the loyalists, reversal of compensation, 
etc., were refused by the - American negotiators and 
forthwith abandoned by the British Commissioners. 
The case of the British loyalists was particularly hard. 
They had been treated with the greatest severity, and 
in many cases with savage cruelty, by the American 
revolutionists for no crime except loyalty to Great 
Britain and a refusal to fight against her. 

So, born of prejudice and fostered in ignorance, the 
Treaty made its debut. When the terms were made 
known it is not too much to say that the whole of Europe 
was staggered by the generosity of the British concessions. 
Not content with losing thirteen colonies, Great Britain 
had given, quite gratuitously and unnecessarily, a piece 
of territory of about 280,000 square miles, endowing the 
United States with territories sufficient for the following 
states :— Ohio (1803), Indiana (1816), Illinois (1818), 
Michigan (1837), Wisconsin (1843), and Minnesota (1858). 

Ill 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

It was at this time that the King wrote weakly to Lord 
Shelburne, " I am too much agitated with the fear of 
sacrificing the interests of my country . . . that I am 
unable to add anything on that subject, but most fre- 
quent prayers to Heaven to guide me so to act, that 
posterity may not lay the downfall of this once respectable 
Empire at my door ; and that if ruin should attend the 
measures that may be adopted I may not long survive 
them." 

Lord Shelburne evidently felt that matters had gone 
too far, and he warned Mr. Oswald that " the nation 
would rise to do itself justice and to recover its wounded 
honour," and as a sop to the national honour he des- 
patched Mr., afterwards Sir Henry, Strachey to Paris 
with instructions to insist on the compensation of the 
loyalists, the retention by Great Britain of the Indian 
territory, and of the original boundaries of Canada 
within the Ohio and the Mississippi. He was to obtain 
a boundary for Nova Scotia more favourable to Canada, 
and he was to refuse the cession of the Canadian fisheries. 

Had Mr. Strachey been sent to the scene of Conference 
at an earlier date it is evident that the Treaty would 
have had a very different complexion. Coming late, and 
single-handed, as he was, he fought step by step to save 
something from the wreck of British hopes. If only he 
had had more time ! If only he had been able to dis- 
cover that Congress had withdrawn her ultimatum as 
to the fisheries and the Mississippi boundaries ! We 
know now that M. de Vergennes would have used his 
influence with the American representatives to induce 
them to reduce their demands. We know now that 
their demands were no more than the bluff of practised 
poker players. But Mr. Strachey held no cards. Messrs. 
Oswald and Vaughan had presented to the American 
negotiators all the knowledge they required of the feeling 
of the British Cabinet. All he could do was to retain 

112 



WANTED— AN EXPERT 

the portion of the Canadian territory between Mr. 
Oswald's Hne and the lakes. He failed in his attempt in 
defining the boundaries of Nova Scotia, but he was able 
to recover the territory between the St. John and the 
St. Croix. 

What the King thought we know. What Lord 
Townshend said was, "Why could not some man from 
Canada well acquainted with the country have been 
thought of for the business which Mr. Oswald was sent 
to negotiate ? Dr. Franklin, Mr. Jay, Mr. Lawrence, 
and Mr. Adams have been too much for him." America 
was naturally delighted. The bargain, if bargain it can 
be called, had been struck entirely on an American 
basis. The Americans had shown an astute diplomacy, 
and England had given practically everything. 

What Mr. Strachey thought may be seen from a letter 
to a colleague, " The Treaty signed and sealed is now 
sent. I shall set off to-morrow hoping to arrive on 
Wednesday, if I am alive. God forbid that I should 
ever have hand in such another peace." 

During the years that followed the Treaty the diplo- 
matic correspondence amongst the State papers shows 
how bitter was the feeling between the United States 
and Great Britain. In the early years of the nineteenth 
century, when Great Britain was fighting for her life 
and for the peace of Europe, these strained relations 
were increased by Great Britain's retaliatory policy, 
forced upon her by Napoleon's Berlin decree which 
prohibited commerce to ports closed to British trade. 
Close upon this followed the war of 1812, which has been 
described elsewhere in this book. In this war the United 
States suffered far more severely than Canada. British 
forces captured and held part of Maine to the Penobscot 
River, including the disputed territory of the Maine 
boundary. Nearly all Michigan, including what is 
now Chicago, to the Prairie de Chien had been won 

113 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

back ; and there was not an inch of Canadian territory 
in American hands. Surely this, if ever, was the moment 
to settle the disputed Maine and Michigan boundaries ? 
The United States wanted peace. Napoleon was safe 
in Elba ; and Great Britain was free for the moment 
from all continental troubles. Yet, when the terms of 
the Treaty of Ghent (1814) were made known, it was seen 
that Great Britain had given back to the United States 
all the captured territory, yet not a word was said about 
the disputed boundaries. 

The fact of there being a state of war between the two 
countries had abrogated the fishery rights conceded to 
the United States, as well as the rights of navigation 
(such as they were) of the Mississippi River conceded to 
Great Britain by the Treaty of 1782-3. Yet, by the 
Treaty of 1818, Great Britain again gave fisher}^ privileges 
to the United States on certain coasts of Newfoundland, 
Labrador and Canada, and although the United States, 
under the Treaty, renounced the liberty to fish within 
three miles of any of the coasts, etc., not included in 
the schedule, there were constant squabbles as to the 
interpretation of the Treaty, which introduced much 
bitterness into the diplomatic dealings between the United 
States and Great Britain. 

The next important arrangement between the United 
States and Great Britain was the Reciprocity Treaty of 
1854, which was to continue in force for ten years or 
longer until terminated by a year's notice on either side. 
By it the United States were allowed to fish in the 
Canadian in-shore fisheries ; Canadians obtained the 
liberty of fishing in the American in-shore fisheries north 
of latitude 36°: the United States were allowed the 
navigation of the River St. Lawrence, and Canada to 
navigate Lake Michigan. Reciprocity in free importa- 
tion and free exportation of certain natural produce 
was also agreed upon, and this Treaty continued in force 

114 



WASHINGTON TREATY, 1871 

to the satisfaction of both sides until, as we have told 
in the chapter on Confederation, the United States put 
an end to it in 1866. 

The Washington Treaty of 1871, which was made in 
the settlement of the Alabama claims, conceded the 
Canadian fishery question to the United States on the 
basis of compensation for ten years' purchase. The 
United States were allowed free navigation of the St. 
Lawrence up to latitude 45° for ever, while free navigation 
of Lake Michigan was conceded by the United States 
to Canada for ten years only. By this Treaty also Great 
Britain was given the right, which she already possessed 
under the Russian Treaty of 1825, of free navigation of 
the Yukon, Porcupine and Stickeen Rivers of Alaska. 
By the same Treaty it was agreed that each nation 
should, for ten years, be allowed the free importation 
of salt-water fish and fish oil, with freedom to use their 
respective canals — in fact, a reciprocal carrying-trade 
arrangement. 

When the Treaty was nearly completed it was sug- 
gested that the time had come for adjusting the claims 
of Canada against the United States for the Fenian raids 
in Canada. But the United States refused to consider 
the matter, and added " that the claims did not commend 
themselves to their favour." The British Commissioners 
submitted, and said politely that under these circum- 
stances they would not urge the inclusion of this matter 
in the Treaty, and the Colonial Secretary of the day, 
replying, said, " Canada cannot reasonably expect that 
this country should, for an indefinite period, incur the 
constant risk of a serious misunderstanding with the 
United States." 

As an example of one-sided reading of a Treaty the 
two following instances may be quoted : — Article 21 
provided that fish and fish oil should be admitted free 
into the country. At the end of four years Congress 

115 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

passed a law imposing duty on " cans or packages made 
of tin, or material, containing fish of any kind," with the 
result that the export of fish from Canada was practically 
stopped. The article of the Treaty which allowed each 
nation reciprocal use of the other nation's canals was 
read by the United States in such a fashion that although 
American vessels with cargoes were allowed to pass 
through all the Canadian canals and the St. Lawrence 
River, Canadian vessels with cargo were stopped at the 
junction of the American canals with the waterway, 
and had either to return to Canada, or tranship their 
cargoes into American vessels. 

In 1874, in a further attempt to promote friendly 
relations with the United States, a draft Treaty was 
drawn up Conceding the fishery right for twenty-one years 
and abandoning the compensation clauses of the Treaty 
of 1871. There were certain other provisions of a reci- 
procal nature, for example, the entrance of natural pro- 
ducts and certain manufactured articles, the construction 
and enlargement of certain canals, reciprocal use of 
certain canals, and a joint commission to regulate fishing 
in the inland waters common to both countries. 

This Treaty, accepted by Great Britain and Canada, 
was rejected by the United States Senate. 

In 1888 yet another effort was made to settle the fishery 
question, and a draft Treaty was signed by the Rt. Hon. 
Joseph Chamberlain, Sir L. Sackville West, and Sir 
Charles Tupper, on behalf of Great Britain and Canada, 
and by the Hons. Thomas F. Bayard, William L. Putnam, 
and James B. Angell, on behalf of the United States. 
This provided that a joint commission should delimit 
the bays, creeks and harbours, etc., that certain definite 
rules should be laid down respecting the three miles 
limit, that the Strait of Canso should be free to the 
United States, and that on the removal of the duty on 
Canadian fish oils, fish, and packages for the same, 

116 



THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY 

Canada should remove her duty on American imported 
fish. There were certain other regulations relating to 
the free entry of United States fishing vessels to the 
Canadian ports. An interim modus vivendi was agreed 
to, whilst the Treaty was in process of consideration by 
the respective countries. 

Canada agreed to the Treaty : the Senate of the United 
States rejected it. 

One of the most recent matters at issue between the 
United States and Canada has been the question of the 
Alaskan boundary. To trace the origin of the dispute one 
must go back to 1799, when the Russian- American Com- 
pany was granted trading privileges on the American 
coast up to 65° north latitude. These privileges extended 
also to the Russian islands in the Pacific Ocean and in the 
Behring Sea. A brisk trade was soon established with 
the natives, a good deal of which was carried on by 
barter of arms and ammunition ; and this gave annoyance 
to the Russians. Finally, in 1821, a ukase was promul- 
gated, by which Russia claimed exclusive sovereignty 
on all islands, ports, and gulfs, including the whole of 
the North-West coast of America, beginning from 
Behring Straits. Foreign vessels were forbidden, under 
penalty of confiscation, to approach within 100 Italian 
miles of Russian territory. This decree naturally could 
not be accepted, and in response to protests from Great 
Britain and the United States, Russia abandoned her 
claim to exclusive maritime jurisdiction, and her territorial 
claims were left an open question. 

In 1822 Britain was invited to formulate her claims 
as to the territory on the North-West coast of America, 
and negotiations were opened with the Russian minister 
by Sir Charles Bagot, the British minister at St. Peters- 
burg. After protracted negotiations an agreement was 
reached on February 16th, 1825, and the Treaty defining 
the Russian American boundary was signed. 

117 

9— (2137) 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

How much of this territory belonged to Britain and 
how much to Russia depended upon the meaning of the 
second paragraph of Article 4, which says, " Whenever 
the summit of the mountains which extend in a direction 
parallel to the coast from the 56th degree north latitude 
to the point of inclusion of the 141st degree west longitude 
shall prove to be at a distance of more than ten marine 
leagues from the ocean, the limit between the British 
possessions and the line [lisiere] of coast which is to belong 
to Russia, as above mentioned, shall be formed by a 
line parellel to the windings [sinuosiiis) of the coast, 
and which shall never exceed the distance of ten marine 
leagues therefrom." 

A glance at the map of Alaska will show that there 
are many waterways coming from Canada, which are 
called at random, canal, river, inlet, or channel ; and 
the crux of the dispute between the United States and 
Canada was as to whether the Lynn canal was an 
inlet, a territorial or littoral sea, a tidal river, or a 
high sea. 

In 1867 the United States made a Treaty with Russia, 
by which all Russian territory in North America became 
the possession of the United States, and the definition 
of the Russian boundary was that of the Treaty of 1875. 
It was not until British Columbia entered the Union 
that Great Britain's interest in the Alaskan boundary 
became vital. In 1872, on the initiative of the British 
Columbia Legislative Assembly, Great Britain pointed 
out the desirability of having a definite boundary. This 
proposition was enforced by President Grant in his 
message to Congress, but no action was taken. In 1884, 
Mr. Dall, of the United States Survey, pointed out that 
since there was no continuous range of mountains parallel 
to the coast the United States would contend for a line 
which followed the sinuosities of the coast, at a distance 
of ten marine leagues, and three years later an informal 

118 



THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY 

conference was held between Dr. Dall and Dr. Dawson, 
of the Geological Survey of Canada, for the purpose 
of agreeing on certain conventional lines. In his report, 
Dr. Dawson claimed that the line should cross the inlets 
of the coast. 

Under a convention of 1892 a joint survey of the 
district near the boun-dary line was made by Dr. King 
and General Duffield. Five years later, the discovery of 
gold in the Yukon brought home to both parties the 
necessity of coming to some agreement. As a provisional 
boundary the watershed at the summit of the passage at 
the head of the Lynn canal was accepted without prejudice 
to the Treaty rights of either party. The joint commission 
held in 1898 endeavoured to come to some agreement 
as to the basis on which the boundary line could be 
defined. The British Commissioners proposed a reference 
to three jurists, one nominated by each party, and the 
third by the two selected jurists in case of disagreement 
by a friendly power. The United States would agree 
to this only on the impossible condition that the third 
arbitrator should be appointed by one of the independent 
states of South America. Great Britain's suggestion 
that the question be submitted to The Hague tribunal 
was rejected by the United States, and the United 
States Commissioner's suggestion of a tribunal of six 
impartial jurists, three to be chosen by each nation, was 
not satisfactory to Great Britain, since it gave no promise 
of a final settlement. Both parties, however, were really 
anxious that the question should be settled, and in Janu- 
ary, 1903, a draft convention based on the proposal of 
the United States was approved by the Canadian govern- 
ment, and the ratifications of the Treaty were exchanged 
two months later. 

In accordance with this convention the tribunal 
consisted of Lord Alverstone, Lord Chief Justice of 
England ; Sir Louis Jette, Lieutenant-Governor of 

119 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Quebec ; and Mr. A. B. Aylesworth, K.C./ representing 
Great Britain ; and of the Hon. Elihu Root, Secretary 
of War of the United States ; the Hon. Senator Lodge of 
Massachusetts, and the Hon. Senator Turner of Wash- 
ington, representing the United States, assembled in 
London on September 3, 1903. 

To it were submitted for impartial consideration 
seven questions, based on Articles 3, 4 and 5 of the Treaty 
of 1825. 

The history of the Alaskan Boundary Award is still 
too fresh in the minds of Canadians and Englishmen to 
permit of a definite historical treatment in this chapter. 
The passions which were aroused by the Award have not 
yet coinpletely cooled, most of the actors in it are still 
alive, and occupy high positions in their respective 
governments. All that can be done, therefore, is to 
set down plainly the questions which were put to the 
tribunal, and to outline the decisions arrived at in the 
case of each. 

The first question was, " What is intended as the 
point of the commencement of the line ? " Both 
countries agreed that the most southerly point of Prince 
of Wales Island was Cape Muzon and that from this 
point the boundary line should begin. 

The second question was, " What channel is the 
Portland channel ? " The British contended that this 
channel, which Vancouver named "Portland Canal," 
entering the sea between Tongass Island and Kannaghunut 
Island, leaving Sitclan, Wales, and Pearse Islands on the 
South -East, and extending North for eighty-two miles 
to its head. 

The United States, on the other hand, claimed that it 
was the body of water now known and described as 
Portland Canal, which, passing from the North between 
Ramsden Point on the mainland and Pearse Island, 
and thence south of the said Island and Wales Island, 

1 Now Sir Alan Aylesworth, K.C., Minister of Justice, Canada. 

120 



ALASKAN BOUNDARY AWARD 

enters Dixson entrance between Wales Island and 
Compton Island. 

This question was the subject of furious argument, 
and reference was made to the Vancouver charts, the 
Russian map of 1802, and many other authorities and 
maps. 

The arbitrators decided against the Canadian view, 
and were supported in their decision by Lord Alverstone, 
against whom a great outcry was made for what was 
regarded in Canada as sacrifice of Canadian interests. 

The actual effect of this decision was to hand over to 
the United States the two barren islands of Sitclan and 
Kannaghunut, which, so far as one can judge, are never 
likely to be of very much value to either country. 

The third and fourth questions were upon relatively 
unimportant points as to how lines should be drawn 
connecting the points already decided upon. 

The fifth question was by far the most important of 
all those raised in the arbitration. 

" In extending the line of demarcation northward 
from said point on the parallel of the 56th degree of north 
latitude, following the crest of the mountains situated 
parallel to the coast until its intersection with the 141st 
degree of longitude west of Greenwich, subject to the 
conditions that if such a line should anywhere exceed 
the distance of ten marine leagues from the ocean, then 
the boundary between the British and the Russian 
territory should be formed by a line parallel to the 
sinuosities of the coast, and distant therefrom not more 
than ten marine leagues, was it the intention and meaning 
of the said Convention of 1825 that there should remain 
in the exclusive possession of Russia a continuous fringe, 
or strip, of coast on the mainland not exceeding ten 
marine leagues in width, separating the British possessions 
from the bays, ports, inlets, havens, and waters of the 
ocean, and extending from the said point where such a 

121 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

line of demarcation should intersect the 141st degree of 
longitude west of the meridian of Greenwich ? " 

In other words, it was practically a question as to who 
should own the heads of the inlets ; should the boundary 
line go right round the heads of the inlets, or should it 
cut across them leaving merely a ten mile strip from the 
general outline of the coast ? 

The arguments pro and con, learned and technical as 
they are, can be appreciated only by close reading of 
the historical and legal arguments which were advanced 
in the Convention. 

It was decided that the intention of the Convention 
was that there should remain in the exclusive possession 
of Russia a continuous fringe, or strip, on the mainland, 
not exceeding ten marine leagues in width, separating 
the British possession from the bays, ports, etc., and 
the waters of the ocean. 

The decision on this question was satisfactory to 
neither party, but was a compromise between the claims 
of Great Britain and the United States. 

The sixth question being dependent upon the negative 
answer to the fifth thus became superfluous. 

The seventh was, " What, if any, are the mountains 
referred to as situated parallel to the coast ? " The 
United States claimed that they did not exist. Britain, 
on the other hand, claimed that they existed, and her 
contention was supported by the tribunal, and, as far 
as possible, the mountains referred to were marked. 

And so, like most arbitration awards, and particularly 
boundary awards, the great Alaskan Award was more 
or less of a compromise between two incompatible claims. 

After the award some little criticism was directed by 
the Canadian Press to the composition of the tribunal, 
but it must be remembered that it was Canada herself 
who accepted the Convention, and agreed to the tribunal, 
and in doing so she became party to its award. 

122 



LORD ALVERSTONE ATTACKED 

Lord Alverstone was attacked both in Canada and in 
England for his decisions, but now that the warmth 
of the controversy is coohng, it will probably be admitted 
by his most sincere detractors that there was an element 
of doubt in the claim put forward by Great Britain, and 
that his judicial mind is at least as capable as those of 
his critics of interpreting fairly the meaning of an 
obscure treaty. 



123 



CHAPTER XIII 

The Destiny of Canada 

" Canada will be the country of the twentieth century." 

— Sir Wilfrid Laurier. 

In these days Canadians complacently observe that 
there is a very thorough awakening in all civilised coun- 
tries to the great part which the Dominion is destined 
to play in the world's history. Lord Strathcona's 
prediction that, by the end of the present century the 
Dominion of Canada shall have a population of eighty 
millions of people, has sometimes been questioned. In 
Great Britain the density of population is 344 to the 
square mile ; in Canada, but a little more than one to 
the square mile. Were the density equal to that of this 
country, the population of Canada would be over 
1,200,000,000. That there is any expectation of this 
at any early date would not be claimed by even the 
most optimistic in the City of Winnipeg, but there still 
remains the assurance of an immense increase at no 
distant period. In 1840 the white population of the 
United States was 14,000,000, by the last census it had 
risen to 76,356,000. In 1840, and for a generation 
subsequent, the facilities for emigration as they are to-day 
did not exist. The emigrant of that period had to face, 
at the outset, a long and perilous journey, full of hardships 
and discomforts, to an almost unknown land. The 
modern steerage passenger is often better provided for 
than when in his home, and has provision made for him 
en voyage at least equal to that formerly given to the 
saloon passengers. In addition, the number and capacity 
of passenger vessels has enormously increased. The 
modern Press also exercises a great influence in peopling 

124 



CANADA A WORLD POWER 

new countries by circulating information among all 
classes in the older and more congested centres of popula- 
tion. To the land hungry of two continents, the attrac- 
tions of Canada, with her vast areas of fertile but 
unoccupied lands, and her healthy climate, must prove 
irresistible, and these attractions will remain for some 
time to come as great as those of the United States in 
1840. There is, therefore, every reasonable ground 
for anticipating that the population of Canada will grow 
even more rapidly than was the case in the history of 
her neighbour to the south, whose expansion has consti- 
tuted a great feature in world affairs. There can be no 
object in labouring the point. The immense resources 
of Canada are admitted on all sides ; and, given an ade- 
quate population, her position must eventually become 
that of a great world power. 

What is the political destiny of Canada is a question 
often asked outside the Dominion. Canadians themselves 
are far too busy acquiring wealth by the development of 
the natural resources of their land to be much concerned 
about the matter. Everyone has seen it stated that 
Canada will become either : — 

1. A part of the United States. 

2. Independent. 

3. Remain as at present. 

On these questions it is especially desirable to take 
short views. In respect of the first suggestion it is to 
be observed that there is no serious movement in that 
direction in the United States. In the great Republic 
the interests of party politics dominate most situations, 
and it may well be surmised that any proposal for union 
with Canada — involving, as it would, a decisive effect 
upon the balance of political parties in the United States, 
and presenting prospects as to which the only certainty 
that could be felt, would be that their influence would be 
extremely problematical — is not likely to come within 

125 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

the range of practical politics in the Republic. Other 
reasons might be assigned in support of the view set 
forth above, but this is unnecessary, the question of 
annexation, for the present at any rate — and who can 
speak otherwise — needs only to be mentioned to be 
dismissed. 

In Canada there has been no very serious movement 
in favour of annexation since Confederation. It is true 
that the case in its favour has been brilliantly stated by 
the late Mr. Gold win Smith, who, however, objected 
to the use of the word " annexation," describing it as 
an improper term, and urging that the union of Canada 
with the American Republic might be on equal and 
honourable terms, like that of Scotland with England. 
By entering this imion he contended Canada need not 
forfeit her peculiar character or her historical associations, 
and might render great services to England within the 
councils of the Union. The primary forces making 
for such union would, Mr. Goldwin Smith confidently 
predicted, in the end prevail. Near the end of his long 
and honourable career Mr. Smith confessed, so it is 
believed, that the union which he deemed as certain of 
consummation, looked further off than ever. This 
latter view is now shared by a great majority of the 
Canadian people. 

It is not permissible in this work to go very deeply 
into any controversial topic. At the same time, the sub- 
ject is one of surpassing interest, and it may serve a useful 
purpose to cite a number of authoritative expressions 
of opinion, from leaders of all sections of the Canadian 
people, which will give, as far as possible, a clear indication 
of the attitude of the people as reflected in the utterances 
quoted : — 

The Hon. George Brown, the Canadian Liberal 
Leader, in a speech delivered at Belleville in 1858, said : 
" WTio can look at the map of this continent and mark 

126 



AUTHORITATIVE DECLARATIONS 

the vast portion of it acknowledging British sovereignty, 
without feeling that union and not separation ought to 
be the foremost principle with British American states- 
men. Who that examines the condition of the several 
provinces which constitute British North America, can 
fail to feel that with the people of Canada must mainly 
rest the noble task at no distant date, of consolidating 
these provinces, and of redeeming to civilisation and 
peopling with new life the vast territories to our north. 
Who cannot see that Providence has entrusted to us 
the building up of a great northern people, fit to cope 
•with our neighbours of the United States, and to advance 
step by step with them in the march of civilisation ? " 

The Hon. Alexander Mackenzie, the first Liberal 
Premier of Canada from 1873 to 1878, in a speech 
delivered at Ottawa in 1875, said : — 

" At the same time he wished his hearers always to 
remember that Canada is our home ; that while we 
think with gratitude of the land of our birth, while our 
hearts are filled with the warmest patriotism when its 
history and its heroes are called to mind, we should not 
forget that we have great duties and responsibilities, not 
of a sectional, but of a national character, to discharge, 
and that we ought to devote ourselves faithfully and 
honestly to the task of creating and upholding a Canadian 
spirit, Canadian sentiment and Canadian enthusiasm ; 
in a word, a spirit of nationality always British, but 
still Canadian. The patriotism of the British people 
and Government will ever be with us, and we in turn 
hope always to reside under the shadow of the grand old 
flag of England, at once the symbol of power and of 
civilisation." 

Sir John A. Macdonald, Premier from 1867 to 1873, 
and from 1878 to 1891, in his last election address, 
said : — 

" For a century and a half this country has grown and 

127 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

flourished under the protecting aegis of the British Crown. 
The gallant race who first bore to our shores the blessings 
of civilisation, passed, by an easy transition, from French 
to English rule, and now form one of the most law-abiding 
portions of the community. These pioneers were 
speedily recruited by the advent of a loyal band of British 
subjects, who gave up everything that men most prize, 
and were content to begin life anew in the wilderness 
rather than forego allegiance to their Sovereign. To the 
descendants of these men, and of the multitude of 
Englishmen, Irishmen and Scotchmen who emigrated 
to Canada that they might build up new homes without 
ceasing to be British subjects — to you Canadians I 
appeal, and I ask you what have you to gain by surren- 
dering that which your fathers held most dear ? Under 
the broad folds of the Union Jack, we enjoy the most 
ample liberty to govern ourselves as we please, and at 
the same time we participate in the advantages which 
flow from association with the mightiest Empire the world 
has ever seen. Not only are we free to manage our 
domestic concerns, but, practically, we possess the privilege 
of making our own treaties with foreign countries, and, 
in our relations with the outside world, we enjoy the 
prestige inspired by a consciousness of the fact that 
behind us towers the majesty of England. ... As for 
myself, my course is clear. A British subject I was 
born — a British subject I will die." 

Sir John Thompson, Prime Minister from 1892 to 1894, 
speaking at Toronto, said : — 

" As one of the public men of this country, I assert that 
it is our duty to remove all possible causes of friction 
between the Mother Land and Canada, in order that we 
may, in these seven provinces and in the fertile prairies of 
the Dominion, truly establish British pohty and British 
institutions upon this continent. It is the interest of 
every true Canadian, if the time shall come, that we shall 

128 



LAURIER AND TUPPER 

make all the sacrifices we can make to see that the flag 
which floats over us shall float over our children as well 
as ourselves. And it is the first duty, I say, of a public 
man to help to sustain the greatness of the Empire as 
well as of the Dominion, knowing that the greatest 
achievements which the people of this Dominion can 
accomplish are to be gained under British rule, and in 
connection with the Empire of which we are proud 
to-day to form a part." 

Sir Wilfrid Laurier, who has been Premier, without a 
break, from 1896 until now, in a speech delivered in 
1900, said :— 

" Three years ago, when visiting England at the 
Queen's Jubilee, I had the privilege of visiting one of 
those marvels of Gothic architecture which the hand of 
genius, guided by an unerring faith, had made a harmo- 
nious whole, in which granite, marble, oak and other 
materials were blended. This cathedral is the image 
of the nation that I hope to see Canada become. As 
long as I live, as long as I have the power to labour in 
the service of my country, I shall repel the idea of 
changing the nature of its different elements. I want 
the marble to remain the marble ; I want the granite 
to remain the granite ; I want the oak to remain the oak ; 
I want the sturdy Scotchman to remain the Scotchman ; 
I want the brainy Englishman to remain the Englishman ; 
I want the warm-hearted Irishman to remain the Irish- 
man ; I want to take all these elements and build a 
nation that will be foremost amongst the great powers 
of the world." 

Sir Charles Tupper, who has held many portfolios in 
the Dominion Cabinet, was Prime Minister in 1896, 
and represented Canada in London for many years as 
High Commissioner, in an article on " The National 
Evolution of Canada," stated : — 

" The Confederation of Canada has been followed by 

129 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

the Commonwealth of Australia, and I am rejoiced to 
see that the statesmen of the provinces of South Africa 
have succeeded in agreeing upon an admirable constitu- 
tion for a united Government. With the great Dominions 
of Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa 
rapidly rising into important nations, and united to the 
Mother Country notably by devotion to a common 
Crown and British institutions, but bound to them, as 
I trust they will be at no distant day, by the potent tie 
of mutual preferential trade with each other, they will 
form an Empire which will excite the admiration of the 
world." 

Mr. R. L. Borden, leader of the Opposition in the 
Dominion Parliament, recently stated that " reciprocity 
within- the Empire, rather than with foreign countries, 
was to-day the aspiration of the Canadian people, and 
he was convinced that its early accomplishment was 
essential to the future of the Empire." He added : — 

" Within a few years the future destiny of the Empire 
will be determined. The problems that confront it are 
not easy of solution. Autonomy must be preserved, and 
the natural resources of each dependency must be de- 
veloped, but there must also be effective co-operation 
in trade and in defence. . . . Everyone realises that the 
people of the British Islands have the right and duty of 
determining their own fiscal policy ; to solve the larger 
problem of Imperial concern all the nations of the Empire 
must lend their united efforts. Reciprocity within the 
Empire rather than with foreign countries is to-day the 
aspiration of the Canadian people. It is my profound 
conviction that its early accomplishment is not only 
desirable, but is even essential to the future solidity and 
welfare of the Empire." 

Mr. Henri Bourassa, the well-knov/n French-Canadian 
politician, said : — 

" It has become fashionable in Canada to boast that 

130 



MR. HENRI BOURASSA 

we are a nation, and to resent the name of colonists. 
We should rather be called a self-governing colony, 
and as a self-governing colony enjoy all the rights and 
advantages, than claim the title of a nation and be 
deprived of one of the most essential perogatives of a 
nation. The unimpaired right of contracting our own 
treaties is the real essence of freedom. Anything 
short of it is a form of slavery or vassalage. Light and 
beneficent the bondage may be. Freely it may be 
accepted, and for a time only it may be safer than liberty. 
But, as it is, good or bad, as long as it stands, it is some- 
thing — call it the way you like — which proceeds from a 
principle directly antagonistic to the principle of liberty. 
Let us then, be sensible, let us frankly acknowledge that 
we are not yet prepared to be a nation, that, not being 
desirous of risking all the dangers of liberty, we renounce 
some of its rights. But whether we admit that we are 
still a colony, or whether we pride ourselves in the innocent 
delusion that we are a nation, I presume that we all agree 
upon one point — that we should be self-governing in 
everj^ respect, except in tliat which involves as its direct 
consequence the severance of British connection. That 
we cannot enjoy the sovereign right to make treaties 
for peace or war, for the cession or acquisition of territory, 
I readily admit. What I claim is, that as long as we do 
not possess the right to make our commercial treaties 
we are not even a self-governing colony in the true sense 
of the word." 



131 



PART II 

CHAPTER I 

People and Social Conditions 

The American "Invasion" 

One of the most remarkable features of recent Western 
Canadian history has been the large and increasing 
immigration from the United States. For many years 
past a stream of home-seekers has been flowing northward 
from the farming States of Kansas and the Dakotas, 
and the total figm-es relating to American immigration 
are given below in four-year periods : — 

1896-7 2,412. 

1900-1 17,987. 

1904-5 43,652. 

1908-9 59,832. 

During the year 1909-10, however, the " trek " north- 
ward of the United States agriculturists appears to have 
become a veritable stampede, and the prodigious figure of 
103,798 was registered for that year. This is almost 
equal to the combined immigration from the United 
Kingdom and the Continent (59,790 and 45,206 respec- 
tively), and later figures for the summer of 1910 indicate 
that the movement is being continued without any sign 
of abatement. 

The material thus introduced is of the best possible 
quality, composed as it is of the most experienced tillers 
of the soil coming from a region where agricultural 
and climatic conditions are practically similar to those 
in the North- West provinces of Canada. Besides being 
men of splendid character, physically strong and of an 

132 




o 

w 

W 

H 
W 



WELCOME "INVADERS" 

integrity that comes from close connection with the 
surroundings of farm Hfe, the incoming American farmers 
have brought with them a substantial amount of capital. 
A settlers' train arriving from the United States is stated 
recently to have brought to Canada two hundred farmers 
with an aggregate capital of 2,000,000 dollars, and it has 
been calculated that the American immigrant possesses 
an average capital of at least 1,000 dollars, brought 
either in cash, stock, or household effects. 

Not only do these welcome " invaders " bring capital, 
but what is worth even more to the future of the North- 
West, they carry with them the ripe experience of years 
on the prairies of the Middle West of the United States. 
This experience has taught them methods of farming 
that are readily adaptable to the life they are destined 
to live in the Canadian North- West. Settlers from 
Great Britain and from the Continent require ordinarily 
some time in which to adapt themselves to the changed 
conditions and environment. The immigrant from the 
prairies of the Western States, however, finds conditions 
varying but slightly from those left behind him in the 
south. He finds that the manner of working the soil 
is similar, the methods of cultivation the same, and the 
crops usually grown the same. He finds a constitution 
certainly not less liberal than that to which he has been 
accustomed, and experiences that security which results 
from an impartial administration of the law. 

The opening up of the farm lands of Western Canada 
seems to have come to pass at a more or less critical period 
in the history of the United States. With the rapid growth 
of the population of the United States and the gradual 
industrialisation of the people, it was inevitable that at 
some time or another the energies of the American farmer 
would become increasingly taxed to raise sufficient 
food-stuffs at low prices to provide for the millions 
dependent on the land that had in earlier years been 

133 

10— (3137) 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

prolific in its yield of wheat, oats and barley, but had 
become denuded of the elements that supplied the gen- 
erating properties. The consequence was that j^ear by 
year the average production decreased, and fields were 
everywhere being thrown into Indian corn and coarser 
grains. 

The burdens laid upon the farmer by the general 
conditions in the U.S.A., and the lessened fertility of 
his farm have all tended to make him restless, and 
particularly amenable to the great attractions of the 
Canadian North-West. 

On examining the country he found it offered more 
and presented less disadvantages than he expected. 
Coming from the American Middle West, he " sized up " 
quickly the prairies of Saskatchewan or Alberta, and he 
became anxious to repeat his earlier experiences in the old 
home when virgin fields enabled him to raise bumper 
crops of wheat. Canada offered " free land for the 
asking," or, if he preferred it, he could buy land near to 
railways at comparatively low prices. He could use his 
machinery to great advantage, and the man with the 
steam plough came forward and demonstrated what 
work could be done. The steam plough is to-day one 
of the great factors satisfactorily applied to the Canadian 
prairies by the farmer. They are being operated in the 
three prairie provinces with splendid results to the yield 
of grain. 

This emigration to Canada has naturally aroused a 
heartburning in the United States, and efforts are said 
to have been made with a view if possible to stem the 
tide flowing northward. Allegations that railway com- 
panies, land companies, and other interested parties 
have subsidised the Press to publish systematic mis- 
representations of Western Canada and the conditions 
ruling there are also said to have been made. More 
practical are the efforts of the United States government, 

134 



RETURNED CANADIANS 

who have spent in the last few years many milhons of 
dollars in irrigating lands once considered to be barren, 
and in adapting other cultivable lands for settlement. 

Among the immigrants now coming into Canada 
from the United States are larger numbers of " Returned 
Canadians," persons who left their homeland in the 
" lean " years now happily past, and are responding to 
the home call since Canada has " come into her 
own." Special directions have been given to Canadian 
government agents in the United States to find out 
former Canadians who may be living there, devoted to 
agricultural pursuits, and to advise them of the oppor- 
tunities that the Canadian West affords as a field for 
farming, and great success has followed this line of work. 
Large numbers of French Canadians are to be found in 
the Eastern, Middle and Western states, and many of 
these have already decided to return to the Dominion. 
Some have gone back to the farms of Quebec, while 
others have taken up homesteads and purchased lands 
in the Canadian North- West. What they have accom- 
plished there is carefully watched and noted, and the 
reports sent back to their friends. This has stimulated 
the return movement to Canada. 

An investigation into the origin of the " Americans " 
who are crossing the border in such great numbers is 
said to reveal the fact that no less than 40 per cent, of 
them are " Returned Canadians," and that only 20 
per cent, of them are natural-born citizens of the United 
States, the remainder consisting of Germans or Scandi- 
navians who had settled in the United States. This, 
however, must be put forward with some reserve. 

A considerable factor consequent upon the large and 
growing immigration of farmers into Canada from the 
United States is the concurrent removal of the merchant 
and the tradesman. Then the manufacturer, anxious 
to retain the trade of the people he has known for years, 

135 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

and at the same time to get a share of the prosperity 
which Canada promises, follows as opportunity offers. 
These settlers are helping to build up the towns and cities 
of Western Canada, becoming part of the life which 
causes the hamlet to grow into the town, and later on 
the town into a city. Great industries are growing up 
in Canada which are financed by American money, and 
managed by men who brought with them from Ohio, 
Nebraska and Indiana the capital and experience 
necessary. 

Arrived in Canada, the American farmer soon settles 
down. He knows his work, he has the business instinct 
to the tips of his fingers, and he is to the last degree 
adaptable. His sense of nationality is not strong, and 
he conies to the country because he thinks it offers him a 
better prospect ; and if he does not sing " Rule Britannia " 
with the fervour of a newly-arrived British immigrant, 
he is none the less valuable to the land of his adoption. 
Much interesting speculation as to the political effect of 
this movement might be indulged in, but it will be wiser 
to record the facts at a future date. 



136 



CHAPTER II 

The- Habitant 

The French Canadian of to-day is, in a measure, a race 
apart. Indeed, to enter the town of Quebec, which 
is the stronghold of French Canada, is to enter a French 
town. The people are mostly French, the language is 
French, the Roman Catholic Church is supreme. The 
buildings have the picturesqueness of the old French 
style ; the whole atmosphere of the place, as compared 
with the typical Canadian city, is redolent of the courteous, 
easy-going methods which obtained in old France. Two 
hundred years of life in a new country has not deprived 
the people of racial characteristics. 

The inhabitants of Quebec were mostly the product 
of the ambitious schemes of Louis XIV for a Colonial 
Empire. A few, it is true, were descended from the 
small exploring parties of Cartier and Champlain, but the 
incursion of the 4,000 peasants and others did nothing 
at all to alter the character of those already there, since 
all were of the same race, and had the same ideas in com- 
mon. The Frenchmen who came out were of the peasant 
class, led by a few of the petit noblesse of the 
seventeenth century. They were not ambitious, they 
were perhaps not progressive. They were simple-minded 
folk whose laudable desire in life was to till the soil, to 
live in well-swept comfort, and to rear their families 
in peace. 

The Aristocracy, or the Seigniors, were a manufactured 
aristocracy, to whom grants of land were given, and these 
in turn handed over to the habitants, portions of their 

137 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

estates to be cut up and cultivated. The tenure was 
semi-feudal and the influence was wholly ecclesiastical. 
Seigniors and priests worked hand-in-hand, and the 
system adapted itself to the needs of the population. 

The conditions of his tenure imposed upon the Seignior 
the necessity of opening up his estate, which was held 
in trust, so to speak, for the Crown. If these conditions 
of owTiership were ignored the Crown had the right to 
resume the land ; and this right was often exercised. 
The Seigniory had usually a frontage of three or four 
leagues along the river, with a varying depth of five leagues 
oi; more inland. On these Seigniories the peasantry 
settled, building their quaint gabled houses along the 
bank of the river, each holding having a frontage of two 
or three hundred yards and running inland for a mile 
or more. 

The tenant, or ccnsitaire, was secure in his holding 
so long as he paid the nominal rent to his lord, and per- 
formed such feudal duties as might be required of him. 
Subject to a fine of a twelfth part of the purchase -money 
he could sell his interest in his holding, such fine being 
paid to the Seignior who had placed him upon the land. 
The Seignior, in his turn, could sell his Seigniory on the 
payment of one-fifth of the value of the ground. 

It will easily be understood that with such conditions of 
holding there was little or no money to be made from 
a Seigniory, and whilst Seigniors remained aristocratic 
they also remained poor. Politically, this French aris- 
tocracy in the old days counted for nothing. Beyond 
a certain quasi-feudal power over his tenants, the Seignior 
had no voice in the government of the Colony, which 
was controlled by a Governor, Intendant, and the Clergy, 
who, in their turn, were entirely in the hands of the 
King and his council in France. The habitant, besides 
owing duty to his Seignior, was obliged to serve in the 
militia, and was liable to be called upon in war time. 

138 



THE HABITANT 

He was. nioreovor. liable to the gov(Mnnieiil for corvie 
or road-nuikinj;. His duty to his SiMgnior and his 
duty {o {\\c ("lown performed, lhen> was yrt his duty 
to the Church. The parish priest lu^ld in some ways a 
higher rank than the Seignior, anil his <//;;/<■ or tithe had 
to be paid by the decree of the Church, which carried 
the torce of law. 

On the whole, the lifetif the habitant of those days was 
one of quiet, unostentatious prosperity, broken by 
occasional periinls of scarcity when the crops failed. 
But he was well clothed, W(^ll housed, and fairly free 
from the tiresimu^ exactions muler which his brother in 
France was even then groaning. 

With ancesttns of this kind it is no wonder that the 
French Canadian of to-day stands out from the rest of 
the inhabitants of the country as a distinct people. 
With the passage of years and the death of the Seignioral 
system the customs of France have still survived in many 
ways ; the habitant still reniains, living in his unostenta- 
tious fashion, farming in the style of his forefathers. 
He is content with little, he is^ fond oi his family and his 
home, and his family is generall\- largi^ in number. He 
does not emigrate easily, even from province to province ; 
he prefers to divide his land that his sons may gain a li\iug 
side by side with him. This trait leads to some over- 
crowding, and coupled with the high birth-rate tends 
to cause the French Canadian to overflow the province 
which he regards as peculiarly his own. 

In some quarters there has been a great deal of nonsense 
uttered about the " disloyalty " of the French Canadian. 
It is perfectly true that the French Canadian, like the 
American " invader," is no Imperialist ; he probably 
cares very little for the rest of the British Empire outside 
his beloved Canada. At the same time he is a shrew^d 
man of affairs, and he knows ]->erfectly well that he is 
as happy, as prosperous, and more free to follow his 

139 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

inclinations under the Union Jack than he would be under 
any other regime. 

In short, the French Canadian minds his own business 
and wishes to be left at peace ; and any attempt to alter 
this condition of affairs would meet with the repulse 
it deserved. 



140 



CHAPTER III 

United Empire Loyalists 

One of the most interesting, if pathetic, incidents in 
the history of Canada and one which had a marked effect 
on the early settlement of Ontario and the Maritime 
provinces was the immigration of loyalists who sought 
refuge on British territory after the close of the American 
War of Independence, and who determined at all hazards 
to live under British laws and institutions. These 
loyalists consisted of those who served with the Canadian 
regiments, as well as those who were described as 
" unincorporated." 

History records that the movement from the States 
was rendered possible by the firm and courageous action 
of Sir Guy Carleton (afterwards Lord Dorchester) as 
mentioned already, whose name is held in high esteem 
in Canada where he became Governor in 1786 in succession 
to Sir Frederick Haldimand. To Carleton was entrusted 
the duty at the close of the war of transporting stores 
belonging to the Crown, baggage, artillery and the 
royalist troops, and the manner in which, in the interests 
of the loyalists, he carried out his task, has always been 
held to be worthy of great praise from his fellow 
countrymen. 

Upper Canada, as the territory now comprising the 
province of Ontario was then called, was but sparsely 
settled, the population consisting of probably no more 
than a couple of thousand souls, dwelling for the most 
part in the neighbourhood of fortified posts on the St. 
Lawrence, Niagara and St. Clair Rivers. The loyalists 
who went there and made their homes were therefore 
practically the founders of the province. 

141 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

From the commencement of the war, numbers of those 
who remained loyal to the Crown found their way to 
Canada. In 1778, 192 souls were furnished with rations 
and sent to Machiche, to the north of Lake St. Peter. 
The number had increased to 853 in the following year 
and the immigrants were distributed as follows : — 
Montreal, 208 ; Machiche, 196; St. John, 209; Chambly, 
27 ; Point Claire, 126 ; Sorel and Nouvelle Beauce, 87. 
In 1782-3 the numbers were greatly augmented, those 
receiving rations, etc., amounting to some 3,000 odd. 
A return in the Canadian Archives gives detailed particu- 
lars of 4,487 at the close of 1786, so that the influx was 
not by any means rapid, although the treatment accorded 
to these unfortunate people by Governor Haldimand, 
acting on behalf of the home government, was in every 
way considerate. It had been held that some hesitation 
was felt in coming to Canada from the belief that the 
government of the country was of a purely military 
character, but when its true nature was realised, many 
came to settle under the British flag as they ardently 
desired to do. Some came by way of Lake Champlain, 
ascending the River St. Lawrence in open boats, others 
came by way of Oswego. From North Carolina some 
came by waggons to the mouth of the Genesee River, 
beyond which there was no road. The towns of Hamilton 
and York (now Toronto) at this time attracted attention 
by reason of their favourable situation from the point 
of view of these early settlers. 

There are records to show that some 28,347 souls 
among these refugees went to Nova Scotia. Out of 
these 202 went to the Island of St. John (afterwards 
the province of Prince Edward Island). Others to the 
number of 4,131 went to the banks of the St. John River 
in New Brunswick, and 3,401 remained at Shelburne in 
Nova Scotia. These came late in the season of 1783 
after peace had been established. 

142 



UNITED EMPIRE LOYALISTS 

How many loyalists actually crossed the border it is 
difficult to say with any amount of certainty, but a 
reliable historian states that we may approximately 
compute the total as : — 

Settlement on the St. Lawrence . . . . . . 4,487 

Refugees reported in Nova Scotia (including St. 

John, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island 28,347 

Cape Breton, 630 familes .. .. .. .. 3,150 

Total number given as being settled about Montreal 

Chambly, St. John and the Bay of Chaleurs . . 5,628 



41,612 



Some writers have placed the numbers of those who 
left the United States at this time as 100,000, but it is 
practically impossible to offer any evidence of this, as 
giving a liberal allowance for those unenumerated in any 
returns, the first movement cannot be placed at more 
than about 45,000. 

It may here be mentioned that when the Treaty of 
Paris was completed orders were given for the various 
provincial regiments to be disbanded. The idea of 
Governor Haldimand was that these troops would 
usefully serve to settle the country from the shores of 
Lake Francis. He refused to accede to applications 
which were made for grants of land near Mississquoi Bay, 
as there was danger of bad feeling being aroused between 
the new settlers and those in the adjoining state to the 
south. He therefore regarded it as better pohcy to have 
lands surveyed at points near the Bay of Quinte on the 
north of Lake Ontario and on the Niagara and St. Clair 
River. One regiment (theRangers) was estabhshed near 
the Mohawk territory, the settlement consisting of 1,568 
men, 626 women, 1,492 children and a number of servants, 
making in all some 3,776. Others were settled at 
Cataraqui, near Kingston. 

A free grant of two hundred acres of land was given 

143 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

to each settler and each child, even to those children 
born after immigration, on their coming of age. Assis- 
tance was also rendered in the shape of food, clothing, 
implements, many of those arriving having lost all their 
belongings. An axe, hoe and spade were granted to 
each settler ; a plough and a cow to every two families, 
and a whip saw and cross-cut saw to each group of four 
households. Tools of various kinds and other useful 
requisites were also given to enable these new settlers and 
pioneeis in a new and unknown country to make a start 
in their new environment. 

By the year 1806 the population amounted to between 
70,000 and 80,000, the emigration from the United States 
having greatly increased and, though some may have 
come wit-h the idea of bettering their condition, it is 
fairly certain that large numbers were induced to join 
friends and i"elatives, having the same hopes and 
aspirations as those who had gone before them. 

The term United Empire Loyalist, or more correctly 
speaking, " U.E. Loyahst," is derived from an Order 
in Council dated November, 1789, which laid it down 
that daughters as well as sons should in each case receive 
a grant of 200 acres of land, the sons on attaining full age, 
the daughters on their marriage. 

It was further provided that all loyalists who had 
adhered to the British cause before the Treaty of 1783 
and their children of both sexes, were to be distinguished 
in the records by the letters " U.E.," in this way 
preserving the memory of their adherence and devotion 
to a United Empire. Thus the title of " U.E. Loyalist " 
was proudly handed down to succeeding generations, and 
there are many Canadians to-day who can justifiably 
boast of being descended from those who sacrificed so 
much in former days to adhere to their principles and 
the cause of their fathers. 



144 



CHAPTER IV 

The Canadian Indians 

The question of the true aborigine is a fruitful subject 
for scientific discussion all the worid over, and it is well 
for the plain historian to evade the issue by plunging 
through the mists of antiquity to practical historic 
records of the people found in the country by early 
settlers. It is quite evident that the Indians of Cartier's 
time were mere wandering tribes, for when Champlain 
came seven years later to Stadcona and Hochelaga, the 
tribes which had been there in Cartier's time had vanished 
and in their place were bands of wandering Algonquin 
Indians. Cartier left behind him a short and primitive 
vocabulary of Indian words which seemed to show that 
his Indians were of the Iroquois stock. The Algonquins 
and the Huron-Iroquois were two great famihes of 
Canadian Indians, alike physically, but clearly separated 
from one another by essential differences in languages 
and customs. They occupied the country bounded, 
roughly, on the north by Hudson's Bay, on the west by 
the Mississippi, on the south by Virginia, and on the 
east by the Atlantic. 

The Algonquins were by far the most numerous and 
most widely distributed ; their language, or dialects 
of their language, were to be found scattered north, south, 
east, and west. In Nova Scotia and Cape Breton were 
to be found the Micmacs, famous in song and legend 
for their cruelty and ferocity, who were hunters and 
fishermen pure and simple, whereas the Algonquins made 
some pretence of tilling the soil. Practically the only 
crop of any importance was maize, and this only in New 
England or thereabouts where the climate was congenial. 

145 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

On the St. Lawrence were wandering Algonquin tribes, 
and at Georgian Bay were Hurons numbering in all some 
20,000, living in villages stockaded and fenced, in the 
same fashion as was Hochelaga. 

The word Huron is said to have been derived from 
the exclamation of some Frenchmen, who, when they 
first saw the way in which some of the Indians wore 
their hair, cried " Quelle hures " {" What wild heads of 
hair "). 

The internal economy of the tribes is worth a passing 
notice. It appears that the Huron nation was a Confed- 
eracy of tribes, each of which was divided into two 
classes ; two Chiefs, one for peace and one for war, 
assisted by a general council constituted the government. 
Each .tribe was self-contained and largely self-governing, 
and the Council was the ruling factor in aU decisions 
taken. 

As in all other countries where the advance of civilisa- 
tion has spelt the gradual extinction of the aborigine, so 
the once wild and splendid Canadian Indian is dying 
out. In the outlying districts, where as yet the settle- 
ments have made little progress, the Indians continue to 
live their free life, trapping and hunting, and their 
mortality tables, although high, are not excessively so. 
Yet even in this comparatively natural state the visit of 
the Indian agent or inspector, paying to each man, 
woman, and child the annuities granted for the surrender 
of their lands, must be an ever-recurring reminder that 
the time is not very far distant when they will be driven 
into the idleness of a Reserve, which in a few generations 
means death to the individual and extinction to the tribe. 

Very few Indians of to-day dress in blanket or deerskin 
such as were worn by their forefathers. Feathers are 
very rarely seen, except on show-days or very high 
state occasions, and the traveller arriving at some inland 
trading-post is disappointed to find that the Indians are 

146 




A STONY SQUAW 



A SYMPATHETIC DEPARTMENT 

dressed in the comfortable but unpicturesque European 
garb of to-day. 

There is in Canada a Department of Indian Affairs 
which deals with the Indian question in a manner in 
which common sense and sympathy are happily blended 
with an intimate knowledge of the people under its 
charge. 

An endeavour has been made to advance the Indians 
as far as possible in the arts of civilisation. They are 
encouraged to till the soil or to engage in some other 
remunerative occupation to keep them healthy and 
happy. In connection with this it is indisputable that 
in Ontario many bands which fifty years ago gained 
their livelihood by hunting and fishing have settled down 
to till the soil, and now are able to compete quite success- 
fully with their white neighbours. This is particularly 
true of those bands residing in the middle of Ontario, 
where there are Indian agricultural societies which hold 
exhibitions and encourage agriculture. The reports 
received regarding these exhibitions say that the produce 
raised by Indians is equal to any in the district. 

A few of the Indians of Ontario have also entered into 
competition with their white neighbours in industry and 
commerce, a few have adopted the profession of law or 
medicine, some again have become missionaries to the 
very bands from which they sprang. 

In Quebec the status of the Indians has changed little 
in the last half-century, since Quebec being older and 
more closely settled the Indian naturally took his place 
in the essential economy of the province at an earlier 
date. The men are employed, as a rule, as hunters, 
guides, fishermen, or gun bearers. They are expert in 
the making of snow-shoes and lacrosse sticks, while the 
women are clever at basket-making and fancy work. 
In the maritime provinces the occupations are much 
the same as in Quebec. 

147 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

In British Columbia the Indians are chiefly occupied 
in fishing, fruit canning, hunting, as guides, or prospectors, 
or in the timber industry ; and many are highly prosper- 
ous. In Manitoba the great possibilities of wheat have 
attracted a few Indians to farming, but mainly they have 
held to their old occupations, and pass their lives as 
fishermen or woodsmen. An interesting and very striking 
change has taken place with regard to the mode of life 
of the Indians in Alberta and Saskatchewan. Up to 
about 1879 the Indians were purely and solely hunters, 
dependent both for food and clothing upon the buffalo 
and other animals which ranged through the provinces 
in vast numbers. The disappearance of the buffalo 
in about 1878 compelled the tribes to adopt at once some 
other means of earning a livelihood. In 1879 the govern- 
ment sent out farming instructors who were located in 
different districts, and from that date onwards the 
Indians have made a steady and most remarkable progress 
as agriculturists. 

Many of the bands have become self-supporting, and 
others are rapidly becoming so. The reports of the 
inspectors and agents of the Department of Indian 
Affairs are supremely interesting reading as showing the 
steady improvement of the race in occupations for which 
it has no hereditary inclination. The following typical 
report is from Inspector Graham on the Indians of the 
south district. " There has been a steady improvement 
in the manner in which the Indians are cultivating their 
lands. The system of summer fallowing one-third of 
the cultivated land every year is pretty generally prac- 
tised now. Last summer was a favourable one for 
breaking new land, and I am pleased to be able to report 
that a large area was brought under cultivation, and the 
land ready for crop this spring will exceed that of any 
previous years. The reserves of all the agencies in this 
Inspectorate are now pretty well surrounded by white 

148 



• A HUMANE POLICY 

settlers, and as the country is filling up the game is fast 
disappearing. As a result, the Indians realise that they 
have to earn a living from the soil and cattle raising. 
It was not long ago that the Indian was quite indifferent 
about farming, and if everything did not go well, for 
instance, a crop failure, this was sufficient to discourage 
him, and he would abandon his land and go hunting 
and roaming. This day has now passed, and he realises 
he has to do the same as his white brother, and keep at 
it in order to make a living. The cattle industry has 
been a very profitable one for the Indians during the 
-past year. Over 500 head were sold and shipped out 
of this Inspectorate, and the prices realised were from 
38 dollars to 45 doUars per head. The Indians own 
some of the finest cattle in the province, and their beef 
cattle are much sought after by the buyers. In addition 
to the cattle sold, the Indians beefed for their own benefit 
several hundred head, and notwithstanding this the 
herds have not decreased." 

The inspector further reports that the Indians in his 
province have bought many implements, horses and 
harness, and that in the agencies there are complete 
steam-threshing outfits. 

Mr. R. N. Wilson, agent for the Blood Indians, number- 
ing 1,174, reports that at the last round-up of cattle 
the Indians at his agency branded 1,167 calves, and that 
the whole herd was carefully numbered and found to 
contain over 7,000 head. It is a striking fact that the 
Blood Indians have begun to grow wheat. In 1907 
sixty acres each sown by fifteen of them produced 23,000 
bushels. " At the conclusion of the threshing," con- 
tinues the Inspector's report, " the wheat was sold, hauled 
ten or twelve miles and shipped to Fort William, the 
twenty cars having been loaded in thirty days. Out of 
the proceeds of the crop each Indian paid back to the 
Trust fund all advances that had been made to him, 

149 

II— (2137) 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

including cost of breaking the land, fencing, etc., and 
after aU settlements each had a very substantial balance 
to his credit at the bank, where much of it still is." 

In consequence of this advance in agricultural know- 
ledge, Mr, Wilson reports that a large number of the 
Indians under his charge are now self-supporting. 

The two main agencies which have contributed to the 
educational advancement of the Indians have been 
the labours of the Christian missionaries, and the schools 
supported by the government. The Roman Catholic, 
Anglican, Methodist, and the Presbyterian Churches have 
all done their share in helping to instruct the Indians, 
and the results of their labours may be judged by the 
fact that of 111,000 Indians about 77,000 are Christians or 
nominally so. The educational work among the Indians 
is mainly carried on in the provinces. In the unorganised 
districts where there are 15,000 Indians only a few 
missionary day schools are maintained. During the 
last thirty years enormous progress has been made in 
estabhshing schools for Indians. In the year 1878-9 
the whole Indian appropriation by the Canadian govern- 
ment was 16,000 dollars, for 1910-11 the appropriation 
is 480,000 doUars. 

The Dominion government contributes to the aid of 
three classes of schools for Indians : — Day schools, 
boarding schools, and industrial schools. Most of these 
are conducted under the auspices of one or other of the 
Christian denominations. Of day schools there are 
231 with 6,531 pupils on the roll, and an average atten- 
dance of 3,129. This small average is due to the fact 
that the Indians are away from their Reserves for several 
months in the year engaged in trapping and fishing. 
To overcome these difficulties, as well as to give the 
children as early as possible some industrial training, 
boarding schools have been established. There are now 
fifty-seven boarding schools in Canada with an attendance 

150 



A TRIUMPH OF CIVILISATION 

of 3,331, and there are industrial schools to the number 
of twenty with an attendance of 1,613. 

The boarding schools are naturally residential ; the 
pupils are fed and clothed, and in addition to instruction 
in the ordinary branches of an English primary education, 
the boys are trained in gardening, care of animals, 
primitive farming and odd jobs. 

In the industrial schools, which are also residential, 
the technical education is more advanced, and besides 
agriculture the boys are trained in carpentry, shoe-making, 
blacksmiths' work, baking, etc. 

In all schools the girls are taught a little housewifery, 
tidiness and neatness in their rooms, personal cleanliness, 
cooking, washing and dressmaking. General instruction 
is also imparted to the pupils, and is by no means the 
least part of the curriculum. The effect of these boarding 
schools on the pupils is very marked when the Indians 
return to live on their reservations. It is apparent at 
once on entering an Indian house whether the girl has 
been a graduate at school or not. The general tidiness 
and cleanliness, the cooking, and the arrangement of 
the household speak for themselves. The industrial 
school graduates are generally helped by the Department 
of Indian affairs when they return to the Reservation, 
such help taking the form of a loan of horses, oxen, and 
a few argicultural implements to begin with. In a 
satisfactorily large number of cases the boys settle down 
on the land, and become good and useful citizens. Of 
failures there are many, from a variety of causes, but 
when it is remembered that a generation ago these 
Indians were pure savages, the results are sufficiently 
encouraging for the Canadian government to go forward 
with the assistance of the Department of Indian Affairs 
animated as it is by the best traditions with full hope 
of success. 



151 



CHAPTER V 

Social Life to-day of Canada 

The last thirty or forty years has seen a great change, 
an inevitable change in the social life of Canada. In 
the history of all nations one may read in the social 
life of the people the history of their progress in the 
scale of nations, but in a young and quickly-growing 
country the transition becomes extremely rapid. Already 
in Canada one finds classes whose lives from the social 
point of view are as far apart as the poles. 

In an earlier chapter has been described the condition 
of Canada some forty years ago. Disorganised, her 
finances in parlous state, held almost in fief by the United 
States, the great prairie areas of the West regarded as 
the " great lone land," Canada was little more than a 
chain of small communities. The agricultural popula- 
tion was ill-organised and struggling, and the few small 
towns were dependent entirely upon the farming commu- 
nity for their existence. They were, indeed, little more 
than centres of exchange, where the farmer would 
obtain for his produce the necessities of life. Everybody 
had enough, no one had luxuries, and wealth as it is 
regarded to-day did not exist. In the social economy 
of early Canada the millionaire was unknown. The 
parliamentary representatives were recruited from the 
farming class or the storekeeper class, and parochial 
politics reigned supreme. In these small communities 
everybody knew everybody ; there was no extravagance 
in dress, and pleasures were of the simplest, and centred 
round the home and the Church. Active and indeed 
hard lives were passed by these early pioneers, and living 
as they did face to face with nature and the necessities 

152 



• THE SIMPLE LIFE 

of mutual support, a spirit of sympathy circulated 
strongly among them. 

Though the life they led was hard yet it was healthy. 
Though at times hunger may have been close to their 
doors, actual want did not exist ; and this kind of existence 
lived in the bracing climate of Canada, produced a fine 
race of men and women. On the whole, existence in 
these small communities was happy though restricted, 
comfortable, though luxuries were not ; contented, be- 
cause imbued with a stern sense of duty and possibly 
because the people knew no other life. 

■ If the life of the small communities was hard, what of 
the life in the remoter districts peopled by the pioneers ? 
In the records of the early days we read of the feats of 
endurance performed by these hardy woodsmen, who, 
far from any civilised life, housed often in log " shanties " 
roofed with bark, were cut off from all outward compan- 
ionship, except on the rare occasions when they came into 
a little market town, carrying on. their shoulders sacks of 
wheat for the mill, and returning to their families laden 
with flour through the blazed forest trail, invisible to 
all but them. 

Not only are these things to be read, but there remain 
to-day representatives of this hardy race of pioneers, 
who will tell stirring tales of summer heats bravely 
endured, and of winter snows with howling wolves for 
company ; tales of torrent and of storm, and of woman's 
endurance to complete the story of man's heroic struggle 
for existence. Many of us have heard in Canadian 
homes from the children and grandchildren of those 
noble men and women who went forth into the forests 
and the plains of those vast territories now known as 
the Dominion of Canada. No monument stands erected 
to the memory of those pioneers, but the story of their long 
and insufficiently recorded fight with nature is precious 
to every Canadian. It is an irony of fate that while 

153 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

military achievement is always fully appreciated, and 
properly so, the pioneer waging his long-sustained battle, 
demanding qualities of the rarest strenuousness, and 
resulting in great and permanent benefits for mankind, 
should pass away unremembered, unwept and unmourned. 

The effect of these hard conditions is to be found 
to-day in the Canadian people. The conditions made 
for physical efficiency, and above all, for character. In 
the larger centres, though the effect undoubtedly remains 
on the temperament of the citizens, the accumulation 
of wealth is making a great change. Those Cana- 
dians, and they are many, who retain their love of the 
simpler forms of life, must regret the passing of these 
conditions and will shake dubious heads at the more 
artificial, though highly civilised surroundings which are 
considered necessary to-day outside the agricultural 
areas. It is to be hoped we shall not witness in the 
Canadian any access of vulnerable English characteristics. 

In 1878-9, as we have shown, a great rush began from 
the East to the West. In aU the eastern provinces was a 
surplus population of young men, sons of more or less 
struggling farmers, who, attracted by the glamour 
of the United States, had hitherto emigrated south 
of the border. But with the opening of the North-West 
the great movement began, and it is not hard to find 
the reason. Eastern Canada, generally speaking, was a 
heavily-wooded country, and the pioneer among the 
forests secured as the price of a life of toil and privation 
a clear farm of possibly fifty acres. Trees had to be cut 
and burnt and the roots left to rot. In these circum- 
stances two or three acres a year was a creditable per- 
formance for the strongest, and it was a process of years 
before the tree stumps rotted below the level of the soil. 
In the West the conditions were entirely different. The 
vigorous man, with the simplest of farm tools and a 
yoke of oxen could begin immediately ploughing or 

154 



TRANSFORMATION BY TELEPHONE 

breaking the fertile prairie land ; an acre a day would 
be easy work, and in one month of summer his yoke or 
pair of oxen would lay twenty-live acres under the 
plough. 

In two or three years the farmer would have under 
crop as much or more than his father had as a result of 
fifty years' work, and with far less arduous toil. In a 
few years more the young farmer would have one hundred, 
two hundred, or three hundred acres under the plough, 
and as his possibilities grew his ambition increased. 
To-day these same men, who in their early youth fought 
nature for, say, a five hundred bushel crop, now harvest 
yields varying from four to twenty thousand bushels on 
the rich prairie lands of the West. 

In these circumstances the Westerner becomes more 
than a farmer of the old type. Any man who has to 
deal with the labour, the outlay on implements, and 
the financial transactions connected with a large farm, 
must develop business qualities of no mean order. So 
the Western farmer has growii up a perfectly distinct 
type, a militant, self-reliant, well-to-do type of man, 
with the bronze of the sun on his face, and the marks of 
toil on his hands, yet a rounded man in every respect. 
True, he lives separated by considerable distances from 
what, until recently, we were wont to regard as the chief 
centres of civilisation, but development has been rapid, 
and to-day the farmers of the West have available all the 
advantages of applied science, none of which is more 
appreciated nor potent in its influence than the govern- 
ment telephone system, which links up East with West 
and town with country. 

It is one of the most useful public works ever under- 
taken by government, and the terms extended are so 
liberal that now even the farmers in remote districts can 
have the line brought up to their township line free of 
charge, and pay only the cost of the extension to their 

155 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

own farms. Beyond the social effect which the Hnking 
up of rural communities has produced there is also a 
very marked result both commercially and politically. 
In the quiet hours of the evening the farmer takes 
advantage of reduced telephone rates and rings up his 
broker to find out the latest market movements and 
the prospects of the season, and he is thus able intelli- 
gently to control at a distance the marketing of his goods. 
Politically, too, the effect must be great, for he is no longer 
an isolated unit ; he can discuss politics with his neighbour ; 
and he is altogether more in touch with the world, more 
alive to the everyday cycle of affairs. 

A first glance at the condition of Canada would no 
doubt incline the observer to imagine that since Eastern 
Canada is the older and more closely settled, and the West 
the more simple and rugged, that in trading, for example, 
the principle to be followed would be to send the finished 
product to the East, and the rougher commodity to the 
West. This, however, is entirely wrong. To a Westerner 
money comes easily, he demands the nice things of life 
just as much as his brother in the East, and he will have 
the best, whatever it may cost. In the East where the 
struggle for life has been keener, the rural population 
has not so much to spend, and is more frugal in the 
spending of it. 

But though the Westerner is prosperous he still remains 
the man of simple life. Those tastes and qualities 
which in the frugal East helped him to struggle against 
hardships sustain him in the more easy conditions of 
the West. He remains a rugged, healthy type. His life 
is frugal, but his wants are supplied the more easily for 
that, and his environment makes for a fuller type of man 
than had he been compelled to chop a clearing out of the 
" Bush." The pioneer of the West must yet handle an 
axe, he must yet be his own carpenter, and his wife must 
be, in the best sense of the word, a helpmate. If he is 

156 



POLITICS TAKEN SERIOUSLY 

to prosper he must have few household cares, he must be 
well fed, and he has no time to look after the "side- 
shows " of the farm, important though they are, such as 
the dairying and the chicken-raising, or even feeding the 
stock in his busy time. 

Another very potent influence which has gone to the 
making of this Western nation is the advent of the 
American settler, who came with his acquired experience 
and his up-to-date notions from the States. He is the 
outcome of a cosmopolitan population where the best 
ideas of agriculture have been evolved from the experience 
of many lands, and a long process of experiment under 
various conditions, and he has developed into one of 
the most effective workers known to any country. 

If one looks at the Western farmer as a whole one 
finds a considerable dash of the Scotsman in his composi- 
tion. The hard work of the summer keeps him physically 
very fit, and the large spaces of prairie involve that 
much of his life shall be spen,t in the open air ; so that 
when the long winter nights come he spends them 
contentedly in his home, bringing to bear upon the prob- 
lems of the day a refreshed mind. His great stand-by 
in literature is the weekly paper, where he may read full 
reports of parliamentary affairs, in addition to which 
his own member will probably send him full reports of 
his speeches. It is a well-known saying amongst all 
parliamentary candidates that an agricultural audience 
requires very careful handling, and this is perhaps 
especially true in the case of a western Canadian audience. 
The Canadian farmer has time and inclination to think 
things out, and if his mind moves slowly it is generally 
a precise mind. He loves a political meeting, which is 
usually kept up until the small hours of the morning, 
and he has the unpleasant Scotch fashion of putting 
questions with a directness which is staggering to a 
candidate not well posted on the public issues of the day. 

157 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Where contact with his fellow-men is more rare than 
in the closely settled parts of Canada, it is natural that 
the farmer should be a good deal influenced by the Press, 
and on the whole there is much to be said for the provincial 
Press of Canada. Agriculture is life to the farmer, and 
the editor who wants to make his paper " go " gives 
him the best notions and ideas on agriculture suited to 
his particular conditions, and consequently a purely 
agricultural paper of a very good type has grown up, 
and has become well established in the provinces. Of 
late years, owing no doubt to the influx of immigrants 
from England, together with the reduced postal rates, 
there has been a great increase in English periodicals, 
and these, presenting as they do an entirely fresh point 
of view to the Canadian, must necessarily exercise an 
important influence upon public opinion. 

The town-dweller is often tempted to imagine that the 
life of these Western farmers is very dull, one without 
much relaxation. Hard it undoubtedly is, but it may 
be said without fear of contradiction that it is a life 
infinitely more full of real pleasure to the working man 
and the man of moderate means than any life that can 
be offered to him in his own society in the cities or in 
England. The church of the rural districts is the chief 
centre of social relaxation. In the small towns some one 
or other of the denominations, which are very well 
represented, holds almost every week a concert, tea- 
meeting, or a supper. Distance has no deterrent effect, 
for parties of young people will drive from one small 
town to another — ten miles or more — in search of enjoy- 
ment. " Surprise parties " are common, and dances 
to beguile the long winter evenings are frequently 
arranged. 

In the summer, between seeding and haying, picnics, 
some political, but mostly social, are the order of the 
day. Farmers from all around rendezvous in some 

158 



. CONDITIONS OF LIFE 

shady spot, each member of the party bearing baskets 
for the common benefit. Picnics, one supposes, are very 
much aUke all the world over, but to a Canadian the 
Canadian picnic seems to have a charm all its own, and 
above all others. There is an informality about the 
arrangements, and a hearty friendliness extended to all, 
which is missed at the more sophisticated picnics of the 
old country. 

By a natural process of thought in speaking of social 
conditions, the mind wanders from picnics to the question 
of marriage. In the older communities the taking of a 
wife becomes more and more a process complicated by 
irrelevant factors. Social conditions, luxuries, inherited 
prejudices, all play their part in the fight against natural 
selection. The young men of Canada take a healthier 
view, they do not want to start married life as big as 
their fathers, and as the bread and butter question 
does not exist in so serious a form as we know it, natural 
selection plays a greater part in the making of marriages. 
Marriage very frequently takes place at a much younger 
age, and the prejudices of parents do not show themselves 
to the extent that they are said to do in this country. 
The Canadian young man is not overwhelmed with female 
society, and the marriage question more nearly approaches 
the ideal than it does in some older countries. The 
proportion of men to women in Canada is as eight to 
one, and the "spinster of necessity" is unknown, 
though the spinster for choice may exist. 

The conditions of life have made the Canadian woman 
one of the most competent in the world, not only as a 
housekeeper, but as a complete woman. Even the Cana- 
dian girl, whose early advantages may not have been 
great, often exhibits in all society a sang-froid, an attrac- 
tiveness, and a vivacity free from restraint yet perfectly 
developed such as will certainly not be excelled. In 
short, she will bear herself in the true womanly manner 

159 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

which is above all passing fashions and beyond all petty 
criticisms. 

It is almost impossible for the traveller taking a hurried 
trip across Canada to realise how complete and how 
enjoyable are the social conditions found even in the most 
outlying districts. It is only in those rare cases when the 
settler is really far from the beaten track that the hardship 
of loneliness is felt. To the chance visitor the scenery 
of the prairies offers nothing but a series of monotonous 
curves with an unbroken horizon. Yet there is a love 
of the plains as there is a love of the mountains, and the 
man who remains on the prairies long enough to establish 
himself, and to become acquainted with the actual 
conditions, finds that a passion for those prairies develops 
full and strong enjoyment in their fruitfulness, and an 
ever-present wonder at the kaleidoscope of the year's 
growth, and an intense love for the wide horizon which 
leaves his imagination unfettered. " In the plains," 
he says, " one can breathe," the mountains oppress 
him, and he scoffs at the idea of monotony. " Monotony 
is only for those who do not think, who do not observe." 
•" Look at that field of wheat," he will say, " where 
is the monotony in that ? In a hundred days the country 
round is changed from a plain of green to a glowing 
carpet of gold." He scorns the mountains which can 
grow nothing, and the forest which hinders the hand 
of man. 

One of the first questions that the Englishman is apt 
to ask is, " What about sport ? " The Englishman is 
fond of his horses and his shooting, and quite rightly ; 
but the Canadian does most of his riding in a buggy or 
a buckboard, and the short seasons mean such close 
application to the work of the farm, that while game is 
plentiful his sport must be subordinated to the main 
chance. However, in the spring he will often find time 
for a little duck-shooting, and get a few shots at the 

160 



SPORT 

elusive goose, whilst in the fall there are prairie chickens 
and partridges to be walked up, to say nothing of moose, 
and deer, and cariboo, for those who can afford the long 
trek to their country ; but this kind of sport is chiefly 
confined to rich city dwellers and English tourists. 



161 



CHAPTER VI 

The Labour Organisations of Canada 

It is only when a country reaches a certain stage of 
development, when the pioneers and the backwoodsmen 
have done their work and industries assume a diversified 
form, calling for that division of labour essential to modern 
methods of production, and when a capitalist class 
grows up in the community, that the organisation of 
labour becomes necessary, to enable the labourers to 
secure that share of the results of their labour, to which 
they deem themselves justly entitled. 

As long ago as 1827 the Quebec printers had a local 
union whose functions were the regulation of wages, care 
of sick members and other benefits. This in 1852 was 
merged into the National Typographical Union, and 
seventeen years later became the International Typo- 
graphical Union. In 1834 shoemakers were organised 
in Montreal, where also in 1844 was to be found a Union 
of stone-cutters, which continues to this day. Looking 
to Upper Canada, we find the Knights of St. Crispin and 
the Union of printers existing in 1834. 

All these Unions, led by the printers of Toronto, 
became affiliated with the International Union. 

In 1868-9 stone-masons, bricklayers, and blacksmiths of 
Ottawa were organised, and from 1870 onwards the 
spread of Unionism was extraordinarily rapid in all parts 
of the country. Three years later, in 1873, labour 
became such a force in the country that a Trade Council 
was organised in Ottawa and the following year the 
president of it was elected as the representative of the 
capital in the Ontario legislature, where he sat as an 
independent member. In 1881 the first local assembly 
of the Knights of Labour in Canada was formed, the 

162 



THE UNION OF LABOUR 

first assembly of Painters being still in existence. In 
1882, the telegraphists of Toronto were organised as a 
local assembly, and in the same year the factory and 
shoe workers also joined the Union. 

By 1886 there were six district assemblies of the 
Union of Labom" in Canada, and of this nmnber Toronto, 
No. 125, had representatives from some forty local 
assemblies. As has been the case elsewhere there have 
been numerous changes in the field of organised labour 
since the beginning of the movement, but the tendency 
has ever been to expansion in numbers and in strength 
till during the present year there are many powerful 
organisations of workmen in the country. In the case of 
a particular organised trade it will generally be found, 
both in Canada and the United States, that it takes its 
general policy from some International Union consisting 
of representatives of the Union of the particular trade. 
In the same fashion the local assemblies of the Knights of 
Labour look to the district assemblies, and these in turn 
are part of the international organisation of the Knights 
of Labour. The principal organisations from which 
local Labour Unions hold charters are the following : — 

1. The Dominion Trades Congress, a body consist- 
ing of representatives of local labour organisations 
throughout Canada. 

2. The International Unions belonging to many trades, 
headquarters of which are in the United States. 

3. The General Assembly of Knights of Labour whose 
headquarters are in Washington. 

4. The American Federation of Labour, which is the 
largest labour organisation in America. Its methods 
are not unlike those of the Dominion Trades Congress, 
and it has been instrumental in organising a great many 
trades in Canada. 

5. The United Wage Earners of Canada, which is a 
general organisation. There are also two other local 

163 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

bodies which confine their activity to the upper provinces 
in which tliey are ; namely, tlie Provincial \\'orkmen's 
Association, composed largely of coal-miners in Nova 
Scotia, and the Western Federation of miners in British 
Columbia, which is very well organised, and is associated 
with an international organisation known as the Western 
Federation of Miners. 

The national labour movement in Canada began in 
1873, the year the veteran agricultural labour organiser, 
Joseph Arch, visited the colony, and was a guest of the 
labour men of Toronto. In that year there assembled 
in Toronto what was then called the Canadian Labour 
Union composed of delegates from the following industrial 
centres : — Toronto, Ottawa, London, Hamilton, St. 
Catharines, Bowmanville, Cobourg, and Seaforth. Forty- 
four delegates attended this congress, which was presided 
over by J. W. Carter, house painter, an Englishman by 
birth and training. In his opening address the President 
said ; — 

" You meet to-day to inaugurate one of the grandest 
events in connection with the labour movement that has 
ever taken place in the Dominion of Canada. Its 
significance may be gathered from the fact that from all 
the centres of industry in the provinces of Ontario and 
Quebec the working classes have determined to centralize 
their energies to promote the adoption of those laws 
and regulations which must be established for the good 
and protection of the labourer. You do not meet to 
create an agitation for supremacy or power, nor to create 
hostiUties between capital and labour, but you do meet 
for the purpose of disseminating the true principles of 
unionism ; to foster a spirit of common brotiierliood 
throughout the Dominion ; to seek the promotion of 
those laws which shall make no distinction of man as 
man. To this end, and, with these objects, you are 
called upon, in the first place, to establish a Canadian 

164 



THE FIRST CANADIAN LABOUR CONGRESS 

Labour Union. Its necessity is beyond doubt." .... 
" I urge upon you the necessity of being wise and moderate 
in deliberations and enactments, and let those who are 
watching your movements at this, the first Canadian 
Labour Congress, be compelled to admit that we are 
honest, earnest and prudent workers." 

The object sought to be obtained by this Congress was 
to organise the artisans and manual labourers of Canada 
in one great national movement, for the purpose of 
mutual protection, and to obtain legislation in the interest 
of their class. 

This Congress passed resolutions asking Parliament 
for the repeal of the Criminal Law Amendment Act ; the 
abolition of the system of selling by contract the labour 
of prisoners in the Dominion penitentiaries and provincial 
prisons to private capitalists ; the enactment of more 
stringent apprenticeship laws ; a measure for the preven- 
tion of the employment of children under ten years of 
age in factories where machinery is used; the passing 
of an equitable lien law, to give the workers a lien upon 
property on which their labour had been employed, if 
they had not received their wages; and the creation of a 
Bureau of Labour and Statistics. The Congress also 
declared itself in favour of a reduction in the hours of 
labour from ten to nine hours a day, with a half-holiday 
weekly, and as opposed to working overtime. 

Several of these demands are now on the Statutes of 
the Dominion or the various provinces. This organisa- 
tion held four meetings, viz., in Toronto, Ottawa (where 
it is to be noted it met the Hon. Alexander Mackenzie, in 
the Parliament Buildings, by permission of the Dominion 
Premier), St. Catharine's, and again in Toronto, when 
owing to the commercial depression which prevailed 
on the American Continent for seven years following 
" Black Friday " in New York City, in September, 
1873, it ceased to exist for want of a quorum. 

165 

13— (2137) 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

About the same time that the Canadian Labour Union 
ceased to exist, the Toronto Trades Assembly, which 
had always been, and is to-day (under the name of the 
Toronto District Labour Comicil), the most active and 
important local labour body in Canada, discontinued its 
meetings for lack of support from the local miions, which 
were all much depressed from the reason mentioned 
above, and reductions of wages naturally ensued in 
consequence. But the desire for representative bodies 
was still uppermost in the minds of the leaders, and when 
the International Typographical Union held its Annual 
Convention at Toronto in the year 1881, the labour leaders 
of Toronto took advantage of the event to make manifest 
that .desire by the calling of a meeting under its auspices 
for the purpose of establishing an organisation composed 
of representatives of the labour bodies of that city. This 
effort proved a great success. As a result of that meeting 
a Trades and Labour Council was formed, which is at 
present known as the Toronto District Labour Council, 
and is the most active local labour organisation in Canada. 
It was mainly due to the efforts of the Toronto Trades and 
Labour Council that the Canadian Labour Congress was 
revived and took its place among the permanent and 
important representative bodies of the world. On 
December 26th, 27th and 28th, 1883, the first meeting, 
which formed the basis of the present Trade and Labour 
Congress of Canada, was held in Toronto, as a result of 
a notice to the officers and members of the various trade 
and labour unions and assemblies of Knights of Labour 
throughout the Dominion sent out by the Toronto Trades 
and Labour Council. This notice provided that all 
unions or assemblies of Knights of Labour of 100 members 
or fractional part thereof, should be entitled to two 
delegates ; 200 members and upwards to be entitled to 
an additional delegate, but in no case was an organisation 
to be entitled to more than three delegates. No proxies 

166 



DEFENCE NOT DEFIANCE 

were permitted. In response to this call to arms forty- 
seven labour representativf;s assembled, and formed the 
first meeting of the present Trade and Labour Congress 
of Canada. 

The aims of the l;i.bour party in Canada are very similar 
to those of organised workers of the rest of the world, 
" Defence nf)t Defiance " being their motto. They seek 
to defend tli(!mselves against the aggressions of those 
unscrupulous capitalists, who, they state, n^gard the 
labourer as a mere chattel, existing for the sole purpose 
of enabling them to get rich quickly, even if at the (xpense 
of the life, limb, or home comfort of the workers. Fifty 
years ago there were no Factory Acts, mine regulations, 
workmen's compensation acts, f)r lien laws in Canada. 
The Federal government and the Ontario government 
gave assisted passages and bonuses to immigrants, out 
of public funds which were subscribed to by the mechanics 
and labourers in common with other classes of the 
community, which tended to overstock the labour market, 
increase competition among the workers, and keep down 
wages. The laws, the labour party urge, were made by 
capitalists for capitalists, and the workers were often 
defrauded of their wages, especially in the building 
trade, for want of a lien law. The franchise was limited 
and the voting was open. The hours of daily labf)ur were 
from ten to twelve and the wages were low. All the 
conditions that usually surround urban labour in the 
old world obtained in Canada at that time, without the 
paternal feeling that was often extended by the consider- 
ate employers in older countries. Consequently it was 
deemed that there was as much necessity for the labourers 
to organise in Canada as elsewhere. The chief advantage 
the Canadian workmen had over his old country confrere 
was his accessibility to the land, if he was dissatisfi(;d 
with urban conditions, but of this he seldom took 
advantage, mainly on account of his natural inaptitude 

167 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

and dislike to rural life. The workers reasonably wished 
to place themselves on a footing of equality before the 
law with other classes, and to put themselves in a position 
to make a fair bargain with their employer, which in their 
isolated condition they were unable to do. This made 
it imperative upon them to' organise themselves into 
Trade Unions. Their political power, being rather 
limited, and urforganised, there was no other way to 
accomplish their object. Canada could never have made 
the increase in population, attained the progress, and 
have occupied the position in the world she does to-day, 
if it could not have been shown that the standard of 
living among the people was higher than in the countries 
of th§ old world. The two principal factors in the recent 
rapid development of Canada, and the great increase of 
population, are first the opening up of the great Western 
prairie, and the increase of wages that has taken place 
during the last thirty years owing largely to the action 
of the labour organisations. Had they not been in 
existence the individual workman would have been 
powerless to bargain with his employer, and enabled to 
secure his share of the increase of wealth that has taken 
place from the cultivation of the " Great West " ; the 
system of bonuses to immigrants, and "assisted" pas- 
sages, would have continued, and the supply of labour 
would have been kept so much in excess of the demand 
that wages could have remained at a rate providing only 
bare subsistence. 

This is manifest from the fact that, at the present 
moment, wages are lowest and hours the longest in those 
parts of Canada where the men are the least organised. 
In these districts wages have not increased in anything 
like the same proportion to the increased cost of living 
during the last twelve years. The labour movement in 
Canada contains all the elements of the same party here, 
embracing, as it does, every phase of social reformer, 

168 



THE STUMBLING-BLOCK OF LABOUR 

from the Conservative Trade Unionist to the irrecon- 
cilable Socialist, who believes that nothing will save 
society but to destroy it. Socialism will never be brought 
about in Canada by Socialistic theories ; if it ever does 
come it will be because society deems it the only way to 
protect itself amongst- the " get rich quick " class. 
Signs of this are perhaps manifesting themselves, in the 
demands of the Western farmers upon their Provincial 
Governments to establish provincial abattoirs, and 
cement works, and the demand of the same class upon 
the Dominion Government for the national ownership 
and operation of all terminal elevators for the storage 
of grain. 

Radical changes in society are not brought about by 
theories, but by conditions. 

In common with the workers of most other civilised 
countries the working men of Canada desire to have 
their aspirations and interests represented in the Provin- 
cial and Dominion Parliaments. The labourers in the 
urban constituencies are numerous enough to accomplish 
their objects easily were they only as united on poUtical 
action as they are on questions of wages and the hours 
of labour. But there are fundamental difficulties in 
the way that are almost insurmountable in some districts. 
The labouring class, like all other classes in Canada, 
are a heterogeneous body, and are not only divided 
but strongly antagonistic to each other on questions of 
race and religion. A large number of members of trade 
unions, while loyal to their unions in trade matters, owe 
their first allegiance in politics to some national or 
religious society, such as the Orange Society, the 
Sons of England, the Ancient Order of Hibernians, 
etc., etc. 

This always has been, and, for some years to come, will 
be, the great stumbling-block in the path of labour repre- 
sentation in Canada. In parts of Canada where these 

169 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Societies are not numerous enough to divide the labour 
party in pohtics, such as in Montreal, where the working 
men are largely composed of French Canadians, or in 
the mining districts of British Columbia, they have 
succeeded in electing a member to the Dominion Parha- 
ment. The city of Winnipeg was also represented at 
Ottawa by a labour member for several years. The first 
man to represent labour on the floor of any parliament 
in Canada, was the late D. J. O'Donoghue, who was 
elected to represent the city of Ottawa in 1874, to the 
Ontario Legislature, at a by-election. On that occasion 
the Conservative party did not put a candidate in the 
field but supported Mr. O'Donoghue, who was supposed 
at the time to have Conservative leanings. On taking 
his seat Mr. O'Donoghue gave the Liberal Government an 
independent support as the only means of obtaining 
any legislation in the interest of labour. At the sub- 
sequent general election in 1879 there were three candidates 
in the running for the Ottawa seat, and Mr. O'Donoghue 
was again elected over his Liberal and Conservative 
opponents by a good majority. He sat through the four 
years of the local parliament, but did not enter the 
legislature again. He accepted a position in the Labour 
Statistical Department of the Ontario Government, after 
which he was appointed Fair Wage Officer under the 
Ottawa Government when that position was created, 
which he held until his death three years ago. He stands 
out as the most prominent figure in labour matters in 
Canada during the more than thirty years that he was 
actively identified with the movement. Mr. O'Donoghue 
was the first to introduce a resolution in the Ontario 
legislature in favour of manhood suffrage, which many 
years ago became the franchise of that province. He 
also procured some important amendments to the 
Mechanics Lien Law, and rendered good service to the 
cause of labour during his parliamentary career. At the 

170 



LABOUR MEMBERS OF PARLIAMENT 

general election of 1887, Mr. Andrew Ingram was nom- 
inated for the Dominion House by the Labour Party of 
the town of St. Thomas, and receiving the support of 
the Conservative party, was elected. He supported that 
party during the ensuing parliament, and at the next 
general election received their nomination, and was again 
elected, but before the expiration of that parliament he 
accepted a position on the Ontario Railway Commission. 
A. T. Lepine was also elected to the Federal Parliament 
as a Labour man, with Conservative support, for a division 
of Montreal, and during his term gave that party an 
■independent support. The only men ever elected to the 
Dominion Parliament as straight Labour men were 
Ralph Smith for Nanaimo, B.C., who subsequently became 
a Liberal, A. W. Puttee for Winnipeg, and Alphonse 
Verville, for a division of Montreal. The first and 
the last of these are still members of the House. The 
two former are Englishmen and neither had been in 
Canada ten years at the time of their election. So much 
for the alleged prejudice against Englishmen that we hear 
such a great deal about. At the last election of members 
to the Ontario Legislature, Allen Studholme was elected 
to represent labour. About 1890 Mr. Joseph Beiand, 
President of the Montreal Trades and Labour Council, 
was elected to the Quebec legislature for a part of 
Montreal. A sketch on this branch of Canadian develop- 
ment would be incomplete without a detailed statement 
of the present demands of the Labour party in Canada. 
At the twenty-sixth Annual Convention of the " Trade 
and Labour Congress of Canada," held at Fort William 
from the 12th to the 17th September inclusive, this year, 
at which thirty-two International Unions and 173 local 
Labour bodies were represented, with a membership 
of 55,000, the following platform of principles was 
formulated : — 

I. Free compulsory education. 

171 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

2. Legal working day of eight hours, and six days to a 
week. 

3. Government inspection of all industries. 

4. The abolition of the contract system on all pubhc 
works. 

5. A minimum living wage, based on local conditions. 

6. Public ownership of all franchises, such as railways, 
telegraphs, telephones, water- works, lighting, etc. 

7. Tax reform, by lessening taxation on industry, and 
increasing it on land values. 

8. Abolition of the Dominion Senate. 

9. Exclusion of Chinese. 

10. The Union Label to be placed on all manufactured 
goods, where practicable, and all government and 
municipal supplies. 

11. Abolition of child labour by children under fourteen 
years of age ; and of female labour in all branches of 
industrial life, such as mines, workshops, factories, etc. 

12. Abolition of property quahfication for all public 
offices. 

13. Voluntary arbitration of labour disputes. 

14. Proportional representation ^^dth grouped con- 
stituencies and abolition of municipal wards. 

15. Direct legislation through the initiative and 
referendum. 

16. Prohibition of prison labour in competition with 
free labour. 

The Knights of Labour 
The greatest passing Labour wave that ever struck 
Canada was the Knight of Labour movement in the 
early eighties. This institution was founded on the 
secret society principle, with signs and passwords, a 
working formula to open and close the Assemblies, as 
the local bodies were called, and signs of recognition, by 
which brother Knights who were strangers could recognise 

172 



THE KNIGHTS OF LABOUR 

each other. It also provided for District Assembhes, 
which are composed of representatives of the several 
local Assemblies of any given district, for the purpose 
of enabling the members to take concerted action on 
matters pertaining to their locality, and a General 
Assembly that met a,nnually in the city determined 
upon at the previous General Convention. This organisa- 
tion was eminently suited to a thinly-populated country 
like Canada, as it provided that where there were not 
enough workers of any particular trade to form a local 
Assembly, mixed Assemblies could be organised, com- 
posed of all classes, except lawyers, who were debarred 
membership in the Society. Several hundred local 
Assemblies were organised, and a not inconsiderable 
number of District Assemblies. The Knights of Labour, 
though originating in the United States, became so 
strong in Canada, that at one time they threatened to 
submerge the Trade Unions, and it was found necessary 
to give the Dominion a representative on the General 
Executive Board. But it proved a meteoric movement, 
reaching its height in 1887, during which year there was 
a general election, and the Labour party of Toronto 
called a convention to nominate candidates for the 
Dominion, at which there were about ten thousand 
organised workers and labour reformers represented. 
Messrs. E. E. Shepherd and A. F. Jury were nominated 
for West and East Toronto respectively, but they were 
both defeated, and from that time the movement 
began to decline in Canada, as it already had done in 
the United States, and to-day there are not a dozen 
Assemblies in the Dominion. Many of the Trade Assem- 
blies, that is those Assemblies that were composed 
entirely of one particular trade, reverted to their former 
form of organisation, viz.. Trade Unions, while the 
members of the mixed Assemblies who wished to retain 
their connection with the Labour movement, became 

173 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

either Socialists or Single Taxers. In spite of the 
spasmodic character of the Knights of Labour movement, 
it was a great educational factor, and helped in no small 
degree to create a healthy public opinion on the Labour 
question, which was one of its principal missions. 

Labour Legislation 
Though it cannot be said that Labour representation 
has been a great success in Canada, so far as numbers 
are concerned, the same cannot be truthfully said in 
regard to Labour legislation. The Statutes of the 
Dominion and Provincial Parliaments bear ample evidence 
of the activity of organised labour in this useful field 
of operation. Previous to 1837 the labourers stood 
naked before the law, so far as special legislation was 
concerned to protect them against the " get rich quick " 
exploiter of humanity. They were living under the old 
statute laws of the United Kingdom, without the benefits 
of the various modern Acts that had been passed here 
for the protection of the workers in mine, factory and 
workshop ; but with the inauguration of a national 
labour movement this state of things soon began to 
change, and to-day few countries are ahead of Canada 
in this respect, though she labours under the disadvantage 
of having to influence nine Parliaments instead of one, 
on account of some of the remedial legislation required 
having to be obtained from Provincial Parliaments and 
some from the Dominion. In spite of this drawback 
they have succeeded in getting the following Acts passed 
in the direct interest of Labour : — Mechanics' Lien Law, 
Workmen's Compensation Act. When this latter Act 
was first passed in the Province of Ontario, The Grand 
Trunk and Canadian Pacific Railways were exempt from 
its provisions for twelve months, on the ground that these 
companies had mutual protection societies to which 
the companies subscribed, and which provided reUef 

174 



THE WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION ACT 

in cases of accident, but it was provided that if at the end 
of that period it was found that the men in the employ 
of these companies wished to be afforded tiie protection 
of the Act, they would be so included in the following 
Session of the Legislature. At the expiration of the 
time mentioned the employees of the companies above 
referred to made it known to the Labour party of Toronto 
that they wished to be brought under the provisions of 
the Act, and a deputation composed of members of the 
legislative committees of the Toronto Trades and Labour 
Council, and District Assembly of Knights of Labour, 
"appeared before the Railway Committee of the Ontario 
legislature, of which the Hon. Christopher Eraser, one 
of the best men and brightest intellects ever in public 
life in Canada, was chairman. After a long drawn out 
battle with the lawyers of the Railway Companies, the 
labour men succeeded in having the question submitted 
to a vote of the men working for the two companies, 
and it was carried by a large majority that they should 
be included among those coming under the protection 
of the Workmen's Compensation Act. 

In several of the provinces, Labour has also obtained 
the passage of Factory Acts, which, like the Compensation 
Act, have since been amended and improved through its 
influence. Other Acts have been passed, such as the 
Shops Regulation Act of 1888, an Act to prevent the law 
of conspiracy being applied to labour disputes, unless a 
deed is committed punishable under the statutes, an 
amendment to the Seamen's Act, for the better protection- 
of sailors, an Aliens Labour Law, an Act for the collection 
of labour statistics, an Act providing for a fair wage 
clause in all government contracts. Acts for the protection 
of employees in manufactories, and an Act relating to the 
protection of persons employed in the construction of 
railways, were passed in the Province of Quebec. 

Ontario is the " banner province " of labour legislation 

175 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

in the east. In addition to the Acts already mentioned, 
the following measures have been obtained : — An Act 
to Facilitate Agreements between Masters and W^orkmen 
for the Participation in Profits, The Trades Arbitration 
Act, an Act to Amend the Law Relating to the Collection 
of Debts, an Act for the Establishment of Co-operative 
Societies, an Act to protect the Goods of Lodgers and 
Boarders against Distresses for Rent by the superior 
landlord, an Act respecting Wages in cases of Assignment, 
an Act respecting Exempting from Taxation Workmen's 
Wages that do not exceed $700.00 a year, an Act respect- 
ing Mines Regulations, and an Act placing a duty of 
$500.00 on every Chinaman entering Canada was passed 
at the request of organised Labour in the Province of 
Britisli Columbia. Most of the Acts have been amended 
several times at the instigation of the Labour party, and 
scores of minor Acts and Regulations have been passed. 
The province of British Columbia has been particularly 
prolific in labour legislation, and successful in obtaining 
representation in the local legislature. 

Another field in which organised Labour has exercised 
a beneficial influence has been in having clauses inserted 
in agreements between municipal bodies and private 
corporations, securing a minimum wage and maximum 
hours of labour for employees of such companies, and 
in cases of street car companies, reduced through tickets 
for workers travelling to and from their work. In this 
last respect Canada stands in the very front rank of the 
nations of the earth, and these benefits, like many others 
accruing from the actions of organised Labour, have 
been showered upon all workers unorganised as well as 
organised. 

Many of the municipalities have a minimum wage even 
for the scavengers that clean their streets and the men 
that dig their sewers. These various laws and regulations 
have saved many a life, brightened many a humble 

176 



MR. A. F. JURY 

home in the hour of accident, and fed and clothed many 
a child that otherwise might have had to suffer great 
hardship through the negligence of employers or the 
meanness of public bodies. In pressing effectively for 
these provisions the working people of Canada have 
been most ably championed by Mr. A. F. Jury, at present 
the Canadian Government Agent at Exeter, a man 
who embodies sterling integrity of character with an 
unrivalled grasp of political economy and what is still 
more rare, of the power of applying that knowledge. 



177 



CHAPTER VII 

The Chief Cities of Canada 

The census of 1910 showed that sixty-two cities and towns 
in Canada had each a population of 5,000 persons or 
more. Of these, twenty-four had a population of 10,000 
or over, and of the twenty-four twelve had populations 
of 20,000 or more. Since 1901 a very large number of 
towns have come into the line of those containing 5,000 
or more, and most of those of 5,000 inhabitants have 
grown to double their size. In the North-West Territories 
particularly the growth of the population has been very 
rapid, as was shown by the census of 1906 in Alberta and 
Saskatchewan. 

Montreal 
In point of size and commerce the importance of Mon- 
treal, with an estimated population of 456,000, stands 
easily first. Situated on the St. Lawrence, at the junction 
of that river with the Ottawa River, it occupies a most 
important strategical position from the point of view of 
commerce, and its surroundings are most picturesque. 
The town is situated upon an island some thirty miles 
long by eight or ten miles wide, formed of the two branches 
of the Ottawa River, and is built in a series of terraces 
which mark the former levels of the river. In size it is 
about four miles long by two miles broad. Behind it 
towers, 700 feet above the river level, the huge shape of 
Mount Royal, from which the city takes its name. 
Montreal is naturally the chief railway centre of Canada ; 
the Canadian Pacific and the Grand Tnmk Pacific 
Railways have headquarters in the city, and in all ten 
railway lines run through or have their terminus in 
Montreal. Montreal has all the characteristics of an 
Enghsh manufacturing town in times of brisk trade. 

178 



MONTREAL 

The wharves, where fourteen important lines of steamers 
have their port of call, are hives of energy, and the smoke 
from hundreds of factory chimneys obscures the air. 
The river is open for seven months in the year, and the 
quays can accommodate many of the largest modern 
liners. By a system of canals which ends at Montreal 
there is a continuous waterway during the open season 
from the ports of Lake Superior to the Atlantic. Montreal 
has been called the " City of Churches." Many of 
the buildings date back to the early days of French 
Canada. Dwarfing all the rest is the vast Roman Catholic 
cathedral of Notre-Dame, one of the largest churches in 
the North American continent, which has accommodation 
for over 12,000 people. 

Of the public buildings at Montreal the most notable 
is that of the McGill University, which takes high place 
among the educational institutions of Canada. Not far 
from Montreal are the celebrated Lachine Rapids which 
run through the narrow gorge between the Canadian 
Pacific Railway bridge and the Victoria bridge. Steamers 
ply upon these dangerous waters, and to shoot the rushing 
rapids is one of the experiences which one seeks once in 
a lifetime and remembers ever afterwards. Undoubtedly 
one of the chief sights of Montreal is the Victoria Bridge 
which spans the river at a point where it is two miles 
wide. The present bridge, built about ten years ago, 
replaced the original tubular bridge designed by Robert 
Stevenson. 

Quebec 

Over-past in the race for wealth and commerce by its 
pushing neighbour, Montreal, the old city of Quebec 
stands apart and most deeply fascinating for the lover 
of the picturesque and the student of history. Quebec 
is purely French — French in its buildings, in its churches, 
in its people ; French in its whole atmosphere. The 
buildings nearly all convey to the mind the fact that one 

179 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

is in an old-fashioned French town. The people are 
more courteous and less hustling than their neighbours 
of Montreal. They have the air of men who say, " Enough 
is as good as a feast." Around the old city is a massive 
wall redolent of the stories of bygone years, for Quebec 
has stood five sieges, from the land, from the river, and 
has held at bay the savagery of the Indians. Raising 
one's eyes above the city one sees the height of Cape 
Diamond crowned by the vast citadel once called the 
key to Canada. Planned by a French Canadian, De Lery, 
and built by the order of the Duke of Wellington at a cost 
of $5,000,000, the citadel is a monument to the engineering 
skill of the time, though by no means suitable for a 
defensive work to-day. 

Toronto 

Enthroned upon the shores of Lake Ontario lies Toronto, 
in its way one of the finest cities of the continent. It is a 
city of large distances, of long streets and fine buildings ; 
tree-edged when the centre or business part is passed. 
Toronto was planned on a large scale and laid out without 
regard to space, unlike many Canadian cities which have 
grown up carelessly as it were. Yonge Street, for example 
which leads through the centre of the town, stretches 
for some miles. The residential districts are peculiarly 
attractive, even workmen's houses have well-kept gardens 
in front of them, and the green of grass and trees abounds 
everywhere to delight the eye. It is essentially a city 
of homes and one of its great charms is partly attributable 
to the University atmosphere. Yet, while the picturesque 
is prominent, it must not be forgotten Toronto has its 
commercial side, for within a circle of sixty miles from 
the centre are produced some two-thirds of Canada's 
manufactures. 

Toronto with its estimated population of 402,000 is 
the centre of British-Canadian influence, and the capital 
of the province of Ontario. Of the thirty-three Chartered 

180 











K"- r- It:, < -f^ 




CHAMPLAIN MARKET, QUEBEC, SHOWING THE 
HOTEL FRONTENAC 



THE CITY OF BEAUTIFUL HOMES 

banks operating in Canada, cleveni have their Head 
Offices in Toronto. The magnitude of the business 
carried on is shown by the Clearing-house returns which 
in 1909 were 1,437,700,477 dollars. Seventy-six insurance 
companies have offices in the city, twenty-four of which 
are head offices. 

For many years past there has been great activity in 
building, and whereas in 1904 the estimated value of the 
buildings erected was less than six million dollars, the 
value of those erected in 1909 was over 18,000,000 dollars. 
The city is well provided with open spaces, there being 
no fewer than thirty-nine parks and squares. Among 
these are High Park, covering 235 acres, Riverdale Park 
and Zoo (108 acres), the Island (178 acres), the Exhibition 
Park (233 acres), Hanlan Park, Queen's Park, and the 
Allan Gardens. There is a proposal to connect the city 
parks with wide boulevards and drives. Toronto is 
well served with railways, more especially by the Grand 
Trunk, the Canadian Pacific and the Canadian Northern, 
and the facilities of thes(^ are supplemented by the radial 
lines which serve as feeders to the city, as well as by the 
water-borne traffic. 

The city claims to be the chief centre of education in 
the Dominion of Canada. Within the University of 
Toronto there are four federated Arts Colleges, and the 
number of students registered in the University and its 
faculties is over 4,000. Besides the higher educational 
institutions, there are seventy-four Public Schools, seven 
High Schools and a Technical School. In addition to 
the Public Schools, which have nearly 40,000 registered 
pupils on their registers, there are nineteen Separate 
Schools with 6,474 pupils registered. 

Hamilton 
Hamilton, which is situated on the south shore of 
Hamilton Bay, the western extremity of Lake Ontario, 

181 

'3— a«37) 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

forty miles distant from Toronto, is an attractive city, 
and can not only boast of being one of the most important 
manufacturing centres of the Dominion, but to be the 
distributing centre of the fruit grown in the fertile Niagara 
Peninsula. The town has a magnificent water front 
and an excellent natural harbour. Its geographical 
position makes it a convenient railway centre, and the 
climate is most desirable. Founded in 1795 it was not 
until 1832 that anything of importance was done towards 
making Hamilton the busy manufacturing town which 
it has since become. Besides the many factories which 
have long been established there, Hamilton, by reason 
of the excellent inducements held out, has acquired a 
large number of branches of important United States 
industries. Electric power is available at low rates in 
addition to natural gas, and with its other natural 
advantages the city may be expected to forge ahead 
even more rapidly in the future than in the past. The 
present population, which at the Census of 1901 was 
52,634, is estimated to be over 70,000. 

Ottawa 

Ottawa, the capital of the Dominion of Canada, is 
situated on the south bank of the river of the same 
name, and is about 120 miles distant from Montreal. 
Here are the magnificent Government buildings, Gothic 
in style, situated on a high bluff overlooking the river. 
The city is the political capital of the Dominion, and in 
addition to the Members of Parliament and Senators, 
there are, of course, a large number of Civil Servants 
resident there, which gives the place quite a distinct 
atmosphere as compared with Toronto and other towns 
in the province. Ottawa is a well-kept city, has fine 
parks, and large sums of money are spent annually in 
improvements by a Commission which will in time make 
the city one of the most attractive in Canada. 

182 




VICTORIA MONUMENT, OTTAWA 



THE CAPITAL OF NOVA SCOTIA 

Many important industries have been established in 
Ottawa and the neighbourhood, in addition to the great 
lumber mills for which the town has always been noted, 
and many developments are bound to take place, as 
Ottawa is favourably situated on the main line of several 
great " railways. Outside the city is to be found the 
Central Experimental Farm belonging to the Dominion 
government, which is not only a place of great interest 
in itself, by reason of the valuable work carried on, but 
is the headquarters of the staff which directs the similar 
work that is carried on at other experimental farms 
throughout the Dominion. 

Halifax 
Halifax, the capital of the province of Nova Scotia, 
occupies a commanding position as the most easterly 
seaport of Canada and rejoices in possessing one of the 
world's finest natural harbours. The city is the eastern 
terminus of the Inter-colonial Railway, by which it is 
connected up with the other great railway systems of 
the Dominion, and is otherwise well served by provincial 
lines. While, perhaps, no longer an Imperial naval and 
military station of the first importance, a garrison is still 
maintained by the Canadian government and the vessels 
of the newly-formed Canadian Naval Service will make 
this their principal Atlantic base. As a commercial port 
open all the year round, Halifax is bound to prosper by 
reason of its excellent geographical position, and there are 
already, in addition to regular steamship services with the 
United Kingdom, sailings to the West Indies, Newfound- 
land and eastern United States ports. Besides being the 
greatest entrepot of the fish trade of Canada, the city is a 
manufacturing centre of importance, while it also claims 
to be a desirable place of residence owing to the social 
and educational advantages it enjoys. The present 
population is about 45,000. 

183 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA , 

St. John 
St. John is a comparatively modem city with a popula- 
tion numbering some fifty-seven thousand inhabitants, 
and by far the most important business centre in New 
Brunswick, though Fredericton is the provincial seat of 
Government. Since the disastrous fire in 1877 a handsome 
town has sprung up and the splendid harbour affords every 
accommodation for a large number of vessels. As the 
terminus of the Canadian Pacific Railway, the city port 
has gained rapidly in importance with the increase in 
traffic that line has enjoyed, while it has also other railway 
connections, including the Inter-colonial. Its inhabitants 
are enterprising and progressive, and fully imbued with 
the opinion that their town has a great destiny before it. 
Many large industrial establishments of various kinds are 
located in St. John and its vicinity, and the city can boast 
of fine buildings, churches and streets. The Reversible 
Falls on the St. John River form a remarkable natural 
feature of great interest to visitors to the city. The river 
drops some fifteen feet into the harbour at low tide, but 
the rise of the tide in the Bay of Fundy is so great as not 
only to overcome to the fall, but to actually reverse the 
flow of water up stream. 

Winnipeg 
Winnipeg, now one of the best known cities in the 
Dominion, is spoken of as the Chicago of Canada. It 
has grown since 1870 from a small trading post with 
a population of some few hundreds to a fine modern 
city with some 130,000 (the local claim is 170,000) 
inhabitants. Situated at the junction of the Assiniboine 
and Red Rivers, forty miles south of Lake Winnipeg, 
the city has become the depot for the enormous trade 
of the Western provinces and is a business centre of the 
first importance. Its phenomenal growth is, of course, 
attributable to the agricultural development of the 

184 



THE CHICAGO OF CANADA 

prairie country of the West, and as showing the importance 
of its situation, it may be mentioned that as the head- 
quarters of the Manitoba Inspection Division, over seventy- 
three milhon bushels of wheat alone were inspected there 
in 1909. More wheat is handled annually at this point 
than even at St. Paul' or Minneapolis, in fact, the total 
wheat transactions at Winnipeg are the largest of any 
city in the world. The number of cattle received at 
the stock-yards in 1909 was 169,458, in addition to which 
128,000 hogs and 24,200 sheep were also dealt with. 
The city is the seat of the Provincial Government of 
Manitoba, and is becoming an important educational 
centre, the University of Manitoba and the Provincial 
Board of Education being located there. Many of the 
largest manufacturers and mercantile houses in eastern 
Canada have found it necessary to establish branches 
in Winnipeg in order to cope with their Western trade, 
and the large factories, stores and other kinds of business 
premises which have been erected, have given the city 
an imposing aspect which was lacking but a few years 
since. Great improvements have been made in the 
direction of providing fine broad streets, avenues and 
boulevards, on the latter of which numbers of shade 
trees have been planted. There are nine parks tastefully 
laid out and cultivated under the control of the Public 
Parks Board and two other open spaces outside the city 
limits. The city is well lighted and served with street 
railways, and as steps have been taken to secure electric 
power generated on the river, rapid progress may be 
expected to take place in its industrial development. 

Edmonton 

Edmonton, the capital of the province of Alberta, 

was formerly best known as the " jumping-off place " 

for the fur-trade regions to the north. At the Census of 

1906 it had a population of over 20,000, and the number 

185 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

of the inhabitants at the present time is estimated to be 
over 28,000. The rate of increase will probably be greater 
in the immediate future, as the city is a divisional point 
on the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway, and the Canadian 
Northern Railway main line passes through it. There is 
also a connection from Calgary with the Canadian Pacific 
Railway. No finer situation could have been selected 
for the capital of the province. The city is situated 
on a plateau on the edge of the beautiful valley of the 
Saskatchewan, and is at the head of navigation on the 
river for all points north of the Peace River district. A 
handsome parliament building and a university (at 
Strathcona) is in course of erection. Opposite Edmonton 
is the. town of Strathcona, a thriving business centre 
with a rapidly growing population, destined, no doubt, 
to join its fortunes with its bigger neighbour. 

Calgary 
Calgary, a charmingly situated town, overlooked by 
the white peaks of the Rocky Mountains, on the Bow and 
Elbow Rivers, and on the main line of the Canadian 
Pacific Railway, is the wholesale distributing point and 
financial centre for southern Alberta. It is connected 
with Edmonton by a branch line running through an 
important section of country which is becoming rapidly 
settled, and will undoubtedly develop into a town of 
much greater importance than it now is. Although 
comparatively new, Calgary has some very fine buildings 
and well planned avenues in its residential parts. As 
the centre of the ranching district and with an abundance 
of natural resources in the neighbourhood, such as coal, 
lumber and building materials, the city has many 
advantages, and is possessed of a most enterprising body 
of citizens who have shown their determination to make 
Calgary one of the most desirable places of residence in 
Western Canada. It claims a population of 50,000. 

186 



A GREAT PACIFIC PORT 

Vancouver 

To obtain some idea of the former appearance of the 
site of the present city of Vancouver, it is sufficient to pay 
a visit to Stanley Park, a magnificent pleasure resort in 
the vicinity. There may be seen groves of towering fir 
and cedar trees, such as were growing at the time when 
it was decided to make the terminus of the newly con- 
structed Canadian Pacific Railway on Burrard Inlet. 
The dense forest was cleared, and from the month of 
May until July, in the year 1886, a town began to grow 
with surprising rapidity, but was wiped out by a destruc- 
tive fire which spread from the surrounding forest. 
Since then Vancouver has grown by leaps and bounds, 
and now has a population of over 100,000. It has a 
picturesque and favourable situation on Burrard Inlet, and 
a superb harbour, which is always safely navigable. 

The trade of Vancouver is already large, and is steadily 
increasing. Steamships ply regularly from the port to 
China and Japan, and to Australia and New Zealand, 
in addition to which there are numerous other saihngs, 
thus rendering Vancouver one of the principal ports 
of the North American Continent. In addition to ex- 
tensive wharves and warehouses, Vancouver possesses 
many fine buildings, business premises, churches, schools, 
libraries, hotels, and clubs, and compares favourably 
with many other cities founded at a very much earlier 
date. There is a complete electric service, with exten- 
sions to New Westminster and Lulu Island, and telephone 
connections with Victoria and other towns on Vancouver 
Island, Seattle, and many other places of importance in 
the district. There is also an excellent service of steam- 
ships making daily trips between Vancouver, Victoria, 
and Seattle. A good water supply and sewage system 
have been provided, and the city is well lighted both by 
electricity and gas. Supplies of coal are obtained from 
Nanaimo on Vancouver Island, and a water-power 

187 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

sufficient to develop 300,000 h.p. has recently been made 
available. 

Victoria 

The approach by water to Victoria, the capital of 
British Columbia, has often been described as nearly, 
if not quite, equal in beauty to the approach to Stock- 
holm. The city is situated on a deep, narrow inlet 
opening from the Strait of Juan de Fuca into the south- 
eastern coast of Vancouver Island, and is eighty miles 
distant from the mainland. Added to the beauties of its 
immediate neighbourhood there are superb views of the 
Olympian chain and the snow-capped Mount Baker. 
The geniality of the climate, which may be compared 
to that of the south of England, renders the city a most 
desirable place of residence, and it boasts of being the 
most English town in Canada. There is hardly an 
English garden flower which is not to be found growing 
in its gardens, besides many indigenous flowering shrubs, 
and roses bloom on till Christmas time. 

The city is a thriving one, and there are many hand- 
some hotels, business blocks, and fine shops ; but the 
parliament building is an outstanding feature of its 
architecture, and ranks among the finest public buildings 
in North America. 

Like Vancouver, Victoria is a port of very consider- 
able importance, and is, moreover, the headquarters of 
the Canadian seal-fishing industry. A few miles distant 
is Esquimalt, which was until recently a British naval 
station, with a splendid land-locked harbour. It will 
henceforth be used as the Pacific headquarters of the 
newly-established Canadian Navy. 

Now that the immense resources of Vancouver Island 
in timber, minerals, and agricultural resources are 
beginning to be recognised at their true value, it is 
difficult to limit the extent to which the city of Victoria 
may be expected to develop in the near future. 

188 



CHAPTER VIII 

The Governor-General and the High Commissioner 

In Canada the Crown is represented by a Governor- 
General who holds office during the pleasure of the 
Sovereign of Great Britain. An administrator or other 
officer may be appointed by the Dominion Government 
on behalf of the Crown, and all provisions made in the 
Act of Confederation in reference to the Governor- 
General, apply to him. The Governor-General chooses 
and summons his Privy Councillors, and should the 
Government of Canada require it, removes them. 

At the time of Confederation, Lord Monck, then 
Governor-General, inserted the names of the Senators 
in the Queen's proclamation of the Union. Any additional 
Senators were thereafter to be summoned by the Governor- 
General, and, whenever there is a vacancy in the 
Senate, the Governor-General appoints a qualified person. 
He appoints the Speaker of the Senate, and can remove 
him. He also summons and calls together the Par- 
liament of Canada in His Majesty's name, and may 
dissolve it within a period of five years from its opening. 
He is empowered to assent, in the King's name, to Bills 
passed in both Houses ; or he may refuse the assent 
of the King, and even reserve bills for the expression 
of His Majesty's pleasure. The Governor-General, also, 
with certain exceptions, appoints Judges for the various 
Courts, and may remove Judges of the Superior Courts 
on an address of the Senate and House of Commons. 

An appeal will lie to the Governor-General in Council 
from any Act or decision of any provincial authority 
in regard to separate or dissentient schools in respect 
to Education, affecting the rights and privileges of 

189 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

supporters of such schools, and in case the law of the 
particular province seems to him requisite for this 
purpose ; or in case the provincial authorities do not 
duly execute the directions of the Governor-General 
in Council in any such appeal, the Parliament of Canada 
may legislate thereon. 

The Lieutenant-Governor of the provinces holds office 
during the pleasure of the Governor-General ; but no 
Lieutenant-Governor can be removed within five years 
from his appointment except for cause assigned. It is 
lawful for the King, if His Majesty think fit, to authorise 
the Governor-General to appoint any person or persons 
to be his deputies within any part or parts of Canada, 
an4, as such, to exercise during his pleasure such powers 
as he may assign to him or them. He must recommend 
to the House all Money Bills, but he originates no 
measures, and by himself has no legislative powers. 

The powers of the Governor-General in respect of the 
disallowance of Provincial Acts are as great as those of 
the King in respect of Dominion Acts. He is, however, 
expected to exercise sound discretion, and for the exercise 
of this discretion the Executive Coimcil for the time being 
is responsible. This power of veto is given to the Gover- 
nor-General in Council, and not to the Governor-General, 
and, as to the significance of this fact, it may be interesting 
to quote the words of Sir John Macdonald. 

Whether " in any case power is given to the Governor- 
General to act individually or with the aid of his Council, 
the Act, as one within the Canadian constitution, must 
be on the advice of a responsible Minister. The distinction 
drawn in the Statute between an Act of the Governor 
and an Act of the Governor-General in Council is a tech- 
nical one, and arose from the fact that, in Canada, for 
a long period before Confederation, certain acts of ad- 
ministration were required by law to be done under the 
sanction of an Order in Council while others did not 

190 




Photo by Lafayette 

THE RT. HON. LORD STRATHCONA AND MOUNT ROYAL, 

G.C.M.G.,G.C.V.O.,LL.D., HIGH COMMISSIONER IN LONDON 

FOR THE DOMINION OF CANADA 



THE POWER OF DISALLOWANCE 

require that formality. In both cases, however, since 
responsible government has been conceded, such acts 
have always been performed under the advice of a 
responsible ministry or minister." 

In 1875 a resolution was moved in the House of 
Commons by the Hon. Edward Blake, then Minister of 
Justice of Canada. The resolution affirmed that, in 
the opinion of the House, the power of disallowance of 
Acts of a Local Legislature conferred by the British 
North America Act was vested in the Governor-General 
in Council, and that His Excellency's ministers were 
responsible to Parliament for the action of the Governor- 
General in exercising or abstaining from the exercise of 
this power. 

The matter arose in connection with certain New 
Brunswick Acts, which His Excellency's ministers 
advised him it was his duty to disallow. The Governor- 
General then stated that he was not prepared to comply 
with the terms of the resolution, and that he would 
submit the case to Her Majesty's Government for con- 
sideration. This was done, and an answer was received 
from the then Colonial Secretary, to the effect that the 
Acts of the New Brunswick Legislature were within 
the powers of that Legislature, and that the Canadian 
House of Commons could not constitutionally interfere 
with their operation. It was added that this was a matter 
on which the Governor-General must act on his own 
individual discretion, and could not be guided by the 
advice of his responsible ministers if the Dominion 
disallow. 

Mr. Blake observed that the doctrine that the Governor- 
General should act on his own individual discretion 
in cases of disallowance was one that could not be main- 
tained consistent with the letter and spirit of the Con- 
stitution. Under the powers of the B. N. A. Act, 
Mr. Blake maintained that that power was vested in 

191 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

the Governor-General in Council, and that he could 
not disallow except upon the advice of his ministers. 
He admitted that the Governor-General could say that 
he could not follow the advice of his ministers, but 
that, in that case, it was for the ministry to withdraw 
that advice or withdraw from his service, leaving the 
issue, which was right. But the gravest point was that 
there was an assertion that the power of disallowing 
local Acts was vested in the Governor-General individually, 
and in which he could not be guided by the advice of his 
responsible ministers. Mr. Blake maintained that there 
was no such power, and that the language which was 
contained in the instruction was such that, if it were 
acceded to by the Canadian Parliament, it would be 
destructive of the principle of responsible government. 
Sir John Macdonald spoke very much to the same effect, 
and said that the right of disallowance of any Act of a 
Colonial Legislature by the Queen herself, in her personal 
capacity and by virtue of her royal prerogative, separate 
from the advice of her advisers, had long since passed 
away ; that the American revolution had pretty well 
settled that question. 

The Premier informed Mr. Blake that the Executive 
had taken action, and the latter gentleman withdrew his 
motion, remarking that he had no doubt what the action 
of the Executive would be, yet, if it should be unsatis- 
factory the matter could be raised again. The principle 
laid do\NTi by Mr. Blake, has, however, been accepted ever 
since. 

The general powers of the Governor-General are 
defined by the British North America Act as follows : — 
All Powers, Authorities and Functions which under 
any Act of the Parliament of Great Britain, or of 
the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great 
Britain and Ireland, or of the Legislature of Upper 
Canada, Lower Canada, Canada, Nova Scotia or 

192 



POPULARITY AND PEACE 

New Brunswick are at the Union vested in or 
exercisable by the respective Governors or Lieuten- 
ant-Governors of those Provinces, with the advice, 
or with the advice and consent of the respective 
Executive Councils thereof, or in conjunction with 
those Councils, or with any number of members 
thereof, or by those Governors or Lieutenant- 
Governors individually, shall, as far as the same 
continue in existence and capable of being exercised 
after the Union in relation to the Government of 
Canada, be vested in and exercised by the Governor- 
General, with the advice, or with the advice and 
consent of or in conjunction with the Queen's Privy 
Council for Canada, or any members thereof, or by 
the Governor-General individually, as the case 
requires, subject nevertheless (except with respect 
to such as exist under Acts of the Parliament of 
Great Britain or of the Parliament of the United 
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland) to be 
abolished or altered by the Parliament of Canada. 
So much for the nominal position, but there is much 
truth in what the late Mr. Goldwin Smith remarked, 
namely, that " The practical aim of a Governor-General 
is social popularity combined with political peace." 

The High Commissioner for Canada 
During a visit to Great Britain in 1879 of the then 
Canadian Premier, Sir John A. Macdonald, with Sir 
Leonard Tilley and Sir Charles Tupper, a memorandum 
was presented by them urging the necessity of providing 
further means for constant and confidential communica- 
tion between Her Majesty's Government and the Dominion 
of Canada, and recommending that a representative of 
the Dominion should be appointed to reside permanently 
in London, and that he should be granted a quasi-diplo- 
matic position. It was pointed out that the policy of 

193 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

the Empire having placed upon Canada, the administra- 
tion of the whole of British North America with the 
attendant duties and responsibilities appertaining thereto, 
that daily experience was showing the absolute necessity 
of providing means of constant and confidential com- 
munication between Her Majesty's Government and her 
local advisers in Canada. It was remarked that the 
Dominion had ceased to occupy the position of an 
ordinary possession of the Crown, existing, as she did, 
in the form of a powerful central Government having, 
at that time, no less than seven subordinate local executive 
and legislative systems ; and that her central Government 
was becoming even more responsible than the Imperial 
Government for the maintenance of international relations 
with the United States, a subject requiring great prudence 
and c^ire, as the populations of the two countries extended 
along and mingled across the vast frontier line. It was 
urged that it was impossible that the questions constantly 
arising could be satisfactorily submitted for the considera- 
tion of Her Majesty's Government in any other mode 
than that of personal communication, and that such 
subjects at the time under consideration necessitated 
the presence in London of no less than three Canadian 
Ministers, which entailed serious inconvenience. It was 
further urged that the rapidly increasing commerce of 
Canada, and her growing trade with foreign nations, was 
proving the absolute need of direct negotiation ; that in 
Treaties of commerce entered into by England reference 
had only been made to their effect on the United King- 
dom ; and that the necessity had arisen for providing 
separate and distinct trade conventions with all foreign 
powers with whom Canada had distinct trade was -a 
necessity ; especially in view of the fact that the Parlia- 
ment of Canada held different views on tariff matters to 
those which were held by Her Majesty's Government. 
They, therefore, submitted that when such negotiations 

194 



AT THE COURT OF ST. JAMES 

were undertaken, Her Majesty's Government should 
advise the Monarch specially to accredit the representative 
of Canada to the foreign court, by association, for the 
special object, with the resident Minister or other Imperial 
negotiator. With a view to giving effect to the foregoing 
pohcy, it was suggested that Her Majesty's Government 
should consent to receive an official representative from 
Canada for the purpose of securing the most early and 
confidential communication of their views, and that, 
when so requested, the proposed Minister should be 
accredited to foreign courts in the manner above men- 
tioned ; also that such representative should be accorded 
a quasi-diplomatic position at the Court of St. James, 
with the social advantages appertaining thereto. 

The Canadian Government, it was stated, desired to 
surround the proposed appointment with all the impor- 
tance which should attach to an official charged with 
such high duties. He should, therefore, it was held, be 
selected from the Queen's Privy Council for Canada, and 
specially entrusted with the general supervision of all 
the political, material and financial interests of Canada in 
England, subject to instructions from his Government. 
It was suggested that the dignity of the office, and the 
advantage of its proper recognition, appeared to require 
a more expressive title than that of Agent-General ; it 
was therefore suggested that the designation should be 
Resident Minister, or such other name of equal import 
as Her Majesty's Government might suggest. 

The Colonial Secretary, in transmitting a copy of the 
memorandum to the Governor-General at Ottawa, stated 
that Her Majesty's Government were very sensible of 
the advantage which might result from the appointment 
of a gentleman who, residing in England, would be fully 
empowered to explain their views on important questions 
concerning Canada. He added that, looking to the 
position of Canada as an integral portion oi the Empire., 

195 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

the relations of such a representative with Her Majesty's 
Government would not be correctly defined as of a 
diplomatic character ; and that, while Her Majesty's 
Government would readily assign to him a status in every 
way worthy of his important functions, his position would 
necessarily be more analagous to that of an officer in the 
Home Service, than to that of a Minister of a foreign 
court. He would, therefore, primarily communicate 
with the Colonial Office on the various subjects which 
might be entrusted to him, and the Colonial Secretary 
stated that while Her Majesty's Government would readily 
avail itself of any information he might afford, and give 
the fullest consideration to any representations made by 
him, it would rest with the Secretary of State for Foreign 
Affairs to determine in what capacit}^ his services might 
best be rendered with a foreign court in the interests 
of the Dominion. 

The High Commissioner for Canada was appointed 
by Statute in 1880, which recited that he should : — 
Act as representative and resident Agent of Canada in 
the United Kingdom, and in that capacity execute the 
powers and perform such duties as were, from time to 
time, conferred upon him by the Governor in Council. 
It was also provided that he should take the charge, super- 
vision and control of the immigration offices and agencies 
in the United Kingdom, and generally, carry out such 
instructions as he might receive from the Governor in 
Council respecting the commercial, financial and general 
interests of Canada in the United Kingdom and elsewhere. 

When it was first established the High Commissioner's 
Office was not well known, and received but little attention 
from the powers that were. It has, however, as the years 
rolled on, steadily grown in importance, and, it can 
safely be said that, largely through its efforts, Canada 
has become, in Great Britain, the best known portion of 
the Empire. Canada has, as promised, given of her best 

196 



HIGH COMMISSIONER'S OFFICE 

to conduct the affairs of the Dominion in this country, 
and the three High Commissioners who have already 
served her here — Sir Alexander Gait, Sir Charles Tupper, 
and Lord Strathcona — are all names to conjure with. 

The High Commissioner's Office has performed most 
useful service, and has gained a widespread influence. It 
has not only brought the Dominion prominently to the 
front in the most important centre in the world, but at 
the same time it has helped to educate the public mind 
as to other parts of the Empire. The almost triumphal 
reception recently extended to the newly-appointed 
High Commissioner for Australia, at which Canadians 
rejoiced equally with their Australian cousins, was in 
vivid contrast to the indifference shown by the public, at 
least to the first High Commissioner for Canada ; and, 
at the same time, enables us to gauge the great change 
in national feeling towards the great British communities 
overseas. 



197 

14— (ais7) 



PART III 

CONSTITUTIONAL PARLIAMENT, ETC. 



CHAPTER I 
Constitutional History 



In considering the Constitutional history of Canada, 
it will be found that it divides itself naturally into four 
epochs. (1) The period of French rule between 1608 
and 1760, (2) the period from 1760 to 1840 when repre- 
sentative institutions were slowly evolving to their full 
strength, (3) the period from 1840 to 1867 when repre- 
sentative government was fully established, and the 
Federal Union was accomplished, and (4) the period after 
Federation. 

For some sixty years after 1608 Canada was in the 
control of commercial companies to whom the King had 
granted exclusive trading rights, and practically delegated 
his authority. In 1664, however, the rule of the com- 
panies came to end and regular government was 
established in Canada, which became neither more nor 
less than a French province, and so subject to the absolute 
monarchy of the French King. The head of the province 
had only such powers as were given him by the King, 
and these were of the smallest. The government was 
conducted by a Governor who was, in fact, military 
Governor ; and an Intendant whose functions included 
legislative work, finance, and the administration of the 
law. These two officers were assisted by a council, of 
whom the Bishop of the Roman CathoUc Church was the 
most important member. 

198 



THE REPRESENTATIVE PRINCIPLE 

So long as Canada remained in the hands of France, 
this system-, based as it was on the French principles of 
government, admirably suited the needs of the people ; 
but when, in 1760, the French rule came to an end, and 
Canada became the possession of England, a procla- 
mation was issued by George III which established the 
first system of English government in the possession. The 
right was given to the people to elect representatives ; but, 
since the vast majority of the inhabitants were of French 
extraction and refused to take the prescribed oath, the 
concession of representative legislative bodies was 
withheld. 

In 1774 the Quebec Act gave the first constitution to 
the new province, the government was entrusted to a 
Governor and legislative council appointed by the King, 
while the proposed elected assembly was postponed 
until the country should be more fully prepared for it. 

The council by which the Governor was assisted in his 
work of ruling the country was called the Privy Council, 
and consisted of five persons chiefly members of the 
legislative council. 

On the whole, the Quebec Act gave great satisfaction 
to the French Canadians, who were quite content with a 
system which allowed one or more of their leading men a 
seat on the council. The fact which in their minds was 
of prime importance was that the Act placed the Roman 
Catholic population on the same footing as the English 
Protestants ; that it allowed their Church, as a corporate 
body, to retain its property ; and that it restored French 
civil law in respect of property and individual rights. 

With the advent of the United Empire Loyalists, as 
they were called, the situation was considerably changed. 
As we have shown in a previous chapter the immigration 
of this great party of English-speaking people had a 
great effect on the political outlook of Canada, With 
the Enghshman's ingrained behef in representative 

199 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

institutions they were inclined to be restive under the 
restrictions of an autocratic legislative council, in the 
election of which they had no voice. Constant differences, 
too, were arising between the English and French-speaking 
population, arising from the ignorance of each party 
concerning the civil law of the country. 

With the idea of separating these two incompatible 
forces of ideas the British Government once again inter- 
fered in the management of the country, and separated 
Canada into two provinces : Upper Canada, almost 
entirely composed of English-speaking Protestants, and 
Lower Canada of French-speaking Catholics. 

The object of the Constitutional Act of 1791 was to 
allow these two provinces to work out their salvation 
independent of one another. The people, for the first 
time, were to be represented in an assembly elected by 
themselves, a Governor-General was appointed for 
Lower Canada, and a Lieutenant-Governor for Upper 
Canada, both nominees of the Sovereign. 

In each province was an executive body chosen by 
the Governor, a legislative council also chosen by the 
Governor, and an assembly elected by the people on a 
restricted franchise. A seat in either house was dependent 
upon certain party qualifications. 

While the Act of 1791 was a great advance it had this 
serious drawback : the advisors of the executive were 
not the representatives of the people. This was particu- 
larly noticeable in the case of Lower Canada where the 
official class was English and the representative class 
was French. As a result, there was friction between 
the Council and an Assembly which agitated continually 
for the control of public expenditure in accordance with 
the custom of the Enghsh Parliament. 

In Upper Canada, where the race difficulty did not 
exist, the act worked much more smoothly. It is true 
that an official class known as the " Family Compact " 

200 



TWO OFFICIAL LANGUAGES 

held in its hands practically the Northern province, 
and the question of Clergy Reserves, which arose in 
consequence of large tracts of land granted to the 
Protestant Church of Canada, was fiercely debated for a 
long time. 

The Act of 1840 gave the Canadian legislators full 
control of taxation, supply, and expenditure, in accor- 
dance with English constitutional principles. The lands 
of the Clergy Reserves were held. 

The land question of Lower Canada, which raged 
around the existing Seigniorial tenure, was ended by 
buying up the claims of the Seigniors and so freeing the 
habitants from many vexatious restrictions which had 
been laid upon them. Municipal institutions were 
established, and local government, the affairs of counties, 
townships, cities and parishes was established ; and a 
beginning was made in the formation of a permanent 
civil service for the administration of public affairs. 

To say that the French Canadians looked upon the Act 
with no amount of sympathy would understate the case. 
The French language was no longer on the same footing 
as the English language, and the fact that Upper Canada 
had the same representation as Lower Canada in spite 
of the larger population of the latter section, was con- 
sidered an injustice to French Canadians. In practice 
it was found, however, that the Act eventually gave them 
the predominance in the councils of the country. By 
an amendment in the Union Act French became an 
official language, and the provision for equality of repre- 
sentation was a great source of strength to the French 
when the population of English Canada by leaps and 
bounds surpassed that of the lower province. 

Before completing the survey of the constitutional 
development of Canada one must notice the Maritime 
provinces, that is to say, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, 
Prince Edward Island, and Cape Breton, which came 

201 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

into the possession of England by the Treaty of Utrecht 
and the Treaty of Paris, 1763. A written constitution 
was never given by the Parhament of Great Britain to 
these provinces as in the case of Upper and Lower 
Canada, and the history of their poHtical development 
is only to be found in the various official documents of 
Colonial Secretaries of State, despatches, statutes, and 
other out-of-the-way sources. 

In Nova Scotia from 1713 to 1758 the provincial govern- 
ment consisted of a Governor or Lieutenant-Governor 
and a council, which was both legislative and executive. 
On October 2nd, 1758, thirty-four years before the repre- 
sentative assembly met in Upper Canada, the legislative 
assembly sat at Halifax for the first time. New Bruns- 
wick, founded by Loyalists, was created a distinct province 
in 1784 and was governed by a Lieutenant-Governor and 
a Council, with both legislative and executive functions, 
assisted by an assembly elected by the people. 

Though the existence of these irresponsible councils 
caused a certain amount of dissatisfaction in the Maritime 
provinces, there was less discontent than in Upper and 
Lower Canada, because there was less obstruction to the 
will of the people. In New Brunswick, especially, 
political feeling ran high, but this was restored by the 
grant of revenues to the Assembly. Before 1840 the dual 
function of controlling justice and executive ability was 
taken away from the Councils, and by 1848 responsible 
government was established formally as it was in the 
province of Canada. 

Cape Breton, known in French history as the " lie 
Roy ale," did not come into the power of England until 
1763 when it was annexed to Nova Scotia. In 1784 it 
was given a special constitution with a government 
consisting of a Lieutenant-Governor and council, and 
this remained in force until, in 1820, it once more formed 
part of Nova Scotia. 

202 



">* 




RIGHTS GRANTED CANADA 

Prince Edward Island was detached from Nova Scotia 
in 1769, and became a province ruled by a Lieutenant- 
Governor and a combined executive and Legislative 
Council. In 1773 the first assembly was elected. Re- 
sponsible government was not actually introduced until 
1850-51, when, after a long fight with absentee landlords 
and an autocratic government, the Assembly obtained 
fuU control of its public revenues and its local affairs. 

In reviewing the period of English rule which followed 
on the absolute monarchy of France, we find at the close 
of the century 1763-1863, that the following political 
rights had been granted to Canada : — 

1. The principles of religious equality and the preserva- 
tion to the French Canadians of their law and language. 

2. The adoption of English criminal law in Lower as 
well as Upper Canada. 

3. The establishment of representative institutions in 
every province. 

4. Complete control granted to the provinces over all 
local revenues and expenditure, without Imperial 
interference. The establishment of municipal institutions. 

5. The principle of the responsibility of the Executive 
Council of Ministers to the legislative assembly. 

The experience gained in self-government during the 
period 1840-60 proved that Canada needed some drastic 
change in her constitution in order to place her on a 
level with the other great powers of the world. In 1867 
a council of thirty-three representative men was held and 
as a result a set of seventy-two resolutions was adopted 
in which the provinces agreed to Federal Union ; and 
in 1867, as we have shown, the Imperial Parliament 
passed the Constitution known as the British North 
America Act of 1867. 

The conditions of the Federal Union and the means 
by which it was attained have been dealt with in a chapter 

203 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

on the Dawn of Confederation, and we are here only 
concerned with the constitutional side of Federation. 

As regards Canada, the situation may be stated con- 
cisely : — It is a Federation of Provinces controlled by a 
central government which exercises general powers over 
all the members of the Union, There are, besides, a 
number of local Governors controlling affairs which 
naturally and conveniently come within their provinces. 

The Imperial Government has executive, legislative 
and judicial supremacy over the Dominion, and this 
power is vested in the Sovereign acting on the advice of 
the Cabinet, the judicial committee of the Privy Council, 
and the Parliament. The Dominion Government is the 
central authority of the Federation whose executive, 
legislative and judicial powers are exercised through a 
Governor-General appointed by the Sovereign, and acting 
under the advice of a responsible council, the Dominion 
parliament and a Supreme Court. 

The provincial Governments have executive, legislative, 
and judicial powers within their constitutional limits ; 
such powers being vested in a Lieutenant-Governor 
appointed by the Governor-General in council, the 
Executive Council, Legislature and Judiciary. 

The fundamental principle formulated in the British 
North America Act, that the Canadian Constitution 
had to be moulded on that of the British is shown very 
clearly in the Canadian rights of self-government. No 
people under British government can be taxed except 
Avith their own consent and through their representatives. 
This being so, since the complete system of self-govern- 
ment and control over taxation and expenditure has 
been granted to Canada, it is only by parliamentary action 
that taxes can be imposed or moneys expended. 

Power to make Treaties with foreign countries has so 
far been withheld from Canada, the principle being that 
as a Dependency she cannot of her own action enter into 

204 



CANADIAN TREATIES 

an arrangement with a Sovereign nation. While this 
is perfectly true, it should be said that in practice, when 
the question of Canadian policy is under consideration 
the King in council chooses and gives the necessary 
authority to Canadian representatives to arrange Treaties 
immediately affecting Canada, such Treaties being sub- 
sequently passed by the Canadian Parliament, and 
approved by the Imperial Government. 

It is a provision of the Canadian Constitution that 
every act passed by the parliament of Canada must be 
submitted by the Governor-General to the King in 
council. The nominal right is reserved to the Sovereign 
to disallow an Act which it is considered might be detri- 
mental to the best interests of the Empire as a whole, 
but it would be clearly unconstitutional for the Imperial 
Government to interfere in any matter which is purely 
the local or domestic concern of the Canadian people. 

At the head of the Dominion stands the Governor- 
General, representing the Sovereign. This functionary 
is generally chosen from the prominent men of England, 
and has the dual function of governing the Dominion 
whilst at the same time responsible for the interests of 
the Mother Country. As the head of the Executive it is 
the duty of the Governor-General to assemble, prorogue, 
and dissolve parliament, and to assent or reserve the 
bills passed by parliament in matters of imperial interest. 

He consults with his Council and submits their views 
to the Secretary of State in England. On Canadian 
questions he is bound by the advice of the Council, and 
should he differ from them on any vital question of 
policy or principle, he must either accept their views or 
exercise his dangerous power of dismissing the Ministry, 
which latter alternative it is certain would never be 
adopted. 

Representing the Sovereign, and being at the head of 
the Dominion of Canada, the Governor-General is expected 

205 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

to keep himself entirely aloof from all political contro- 
versies ; and, with no axe to grind, and no end in view 
but the good of the Dominion of Canada, he necessarily 
holds a position of some importance in the scheme of 
political affairs. With very obvious limitations he may 
perhaps be regarded as the constitutional Sovereign 
pro tern, of Canada. 

The council which advises the Governor-General of 
Canada is known as the " King's Privy Council for 
Canada." It occupies precisely the position of the 
English Privy Council, that is to say, that its members 
when not actually in the Cabinet retain their honorary 
rank but have no duties. Ministers nominated by the 
Governor-General are first of all appointed to the Privy 
Council and then hold certain public offices. 

Constitution and Parliamentary 
There are in Canada sixteen Departments of State, 
presided over by Ministers, viz.. Justice, Finance, Agri- 
culture, Secretary of State, External Affairs, Marine and 
Fisheries, Naval Service, Militia, Customs, Inland Revenue, 
Interior, Post Office, Public Works, Trade and Commerce, 
Customs, and Labour. 

To the Prime Minister is assigned no particular place ; 
and, in the past, various portfolios have been held by 
the several occupants of the office. The present Premier, 
the Right Hon. Sir Wilfrid Laurier, holds that of President 
of the Council. 

The Minister of Justice is by virtue of his office Attorney- 
General of Canada, and is entrusted with practically the 
same powers and charged with the same duties, which 
belong to the office of Attorney-General in this country, 
so far as these are applicable to Canada. He is 
charged with the duty of seeing that the administration 
of Public Affairs is in accordance with law, and has the 
control or superintendence of all matters concerning the 

206 



DEPARTMENTS OF GOVERNMENT 

administration of Justice in the Dominion falling within 
the jurisdiction of the Federal Government. He must 
advise upon Provincial legislation in case it has gone 
beyond the powers of the provinces, and he advises the 
Crown generally on all legal matters referred to him. 
He also has superintendence of Penitentiaries and the 
prison system generally. 

The Department of Finance, under the control of the 
Minister of Finance, has the supervision and control of 
all matters connected with Financial Affairs and Public 
accounts, revenue and expenditure of the Dominion, 
excepting such matters as may be assigned to other 
Departments. He is a member of the Treasury Board, 
which is a Committee of the Privy Council on all matters 
above mentioned. The Department has to deal with 
Banks and with the issue of Dominion notes and the 
currency generally. The Minister of Finance is also 
Receiver-General, and it is provided that all public 
moneys, from whatever source of revenue derived, shall 
be paid to his credit as such. 

The duties and powers of the Minister of Agriculture, 
extend, among other matters, to the administration of 
laws and Orders in Council, relating to the following 
matters, which are controlled by his Department. 
Agriculture ; Public Health and Quarantine, Arts and 
Manufactures ; The Census ; Patents, Copyright, etc. 
The Minister keeps a register of copyrights, in which 
entries are made imder the Copyright Act. A census 
is taken in every tenth year, and the Department prepares 
all forms and instructions necessary for the taking of the 
same, and lays before Parliament abstracts and returns 
showing the results of the Census. The Experimental 
Farms, established in various parts of the Dominion, 
come under the control of the Minister. All matters 
respecting Infectious or Contagious Diseases affecting 
animals are dealt with in his Department. 

207 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

The duties of the Secretary of State include the keep- 
ing of the State Correspondence, and the keeping of 
State records and papers. He is also the Registrar- 
General of Canada, and as such, registers all proclama- 
tions, commissions, letters patent, and other instruments 
and documents issued under the Great Seal, and all 
bonds, warrants of extradition, etc., etc. In 1909 a 
Department called the Department of External Affairs, 
was created by Statute. Over this Department it was 
provided that the Secretary of State for the time being 
should preside, and that he, as head of the department, 
should have the conduct of all official communications 
between the Government of Canada and the Government 
of any other country in connection with the external 
affairs of Canada. It was also provided that all matters 
relating to the foreign consular service in Canada should 
be transferred to it. 

The Minister of Marine and Fisheries has the manage- 
ment and direction of this public Department under his 
control. He also presides over the newly-formed 
" Department of the Naval Service," and is called the 
Minister of the Naval Service. The former Department 
has the control among other things of matters relating to 
pilots, the construction and maintenance of lighthouses, 
lightships, etc., piers, wharves, steamboat inspection, 
registering and measurement of shipping, hydrographic 
surveys, deck and load lines, and the management, 
regulation and protection of sea -coast and inland fisheries 
except the fisheries protection service. The Minister of 
the Naval Service has the control and management of 
all naval affairs, including the construction, purchase, 
etc., of naval estabhshments and of ships and other 
vessels. The Fisheries Protection Service is also under 
his control. 

The Minister of Militia and Defence is charged with 
and is responsible for the administration of Militia affairs, 

208 



DEPARTMENTS OF GOVERNMENT 

and of the fortifications, ordnance, arms, armouries, stores, 
etc., belonging to Canada, including the initiative in all 
matters involving the expenditure of money. 

The Department of Customs is presided over by the 
Minister of Customs. The Governor-General appoints 
a Commissioner of Customs. The department has control 
and management of the collection of the duties of Customs, 
and of matters incident thereto, and of the officers and 
servants employed in that service. 

The Department presided over by the Minister of 
Inland Revenue has the control and management of the 
collection of stamp duties, and the preparation and issue 
of stamps and stamp paper, except postage stamps ; of 
internal taxes ; standard weights and measures, and the 
collection of bridge and ferry tolls and rents. 

The Minister of the Interior has the management of 
the affairs of all Crown lands and all other public lands 
not specially under the control of other departments. 
All matters referring to the regulation and control of 
immigration, are also under the control of this Minister. 

The Postmaster-General may, subject to the Acts in 
force, establish and close Post Offices, appoint and 
suspend Postmasters, make mail contracts, and promul- 
gate regulations with regard to postal matters, make 
orders and regulations respecting the money-order system ; 
grant licences for the sale of stamps, etc., etc. 

The Minister of Public Works has the management, 
charge and direction of dams, construction and repair of 
harbours, piers and works for improving navigation, and 
vessels, tools, implements and machinery for the improve- 
ment of navigation. He also has control of the slides, 
dams and other works used for the transmission of timber, 
and the collection of fees incident thereto, roads and 
bridges, public buildings, and telegraph lines. He has 
under his direction all matters appertaining to the 

209 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

maintenance and repair of Government buildings at 
Ottawa, and all other property belonging to Canada 
acquired, constructed, enlarged, etc., at the expense of 
Canada, or for the acquisition, construction, etc., of 
which any public money is voted and appropriated by 
Parliament, except works for which money has been 
appropriated as a subsidy only. 

The duties and powers of the Minister of Trade and 
Commerce extend to the execution of laws enacted by 
the Parliament of Canada and orders of the Governor in 
Council, relating to such matters connected with trade 
and commerce generally not by law assigned to any 
other Department of the Government of Canada. The 
administration and execution of the following Acts are 
under his management and direction : The Cullers Act ; 
The Inspection and Sale Act, with the exception of certain 
parts ; and the Manitoba Grain Act. 

The Minister of Labour is charged with the administra- 
tion of the Conciliation and Labour Act and the Industrial 
Disputes Investigation Act, 1907, and with such other 
duties as may be assigned to him by the Governor in 
Council. 

Since the Cabinet depends for its existence upon the 
approval of the Lower House, the major part of the 
ministry is naturally drawn from the Legislative Assembly 
though always a small number of positions is given to 
members of the Senate. These never number more than 
four. The head of the Cabinet, as in England, is known 
as the Premier (because when the Governor-General 
wishes a new Cabinet to be formed he is the first man 
called upon to form it), and the Governor-General appoints 
his nominees. Every Minister has the right to communi- 
cate direct with the Governor-General on all departmental 
matters, but with general communications between the 
Cabinet and the Governor-General the Premier is the 
medium of communication. 

210 



THE CABINET 

The Cabinet, as in England, is bound by certain 
conventions : conventions not written down in the 
British North America Act or by any law other than 
parHamentary usage. On the death or resignation of 
the Premier the Cabinet is dissolved, and ministers hold 
office only until a new Premier is called. He may either 
ask them to continue in office, or accept their resignations, 
which are automatically offered. In the case of an 
adverse vote in the Lower House, the Premier must either 
resign or convince the Governor-General that a dissolution 
is necessary, on the grounds that the adverse vote 
does not represent the wishes of the people. Procla- 
mations resuming or dissolving parliament, writs of 
election, etc., are signed by the Governor-General, and 
countersigned by the Minister, or other proper officer. 



211 



CHAPTER II 

The Parliament of Canada 

As in the case of Great Britain, the Parliament is com- 
posed of two houses, the upper house, or Senate, and the 
lower house or House of Commons. Two houses always 
formed part of the provincial legislature from 1791 to 
1867, when Ontario decided to confine her house of 
legislature to an elected assembly under the Lieutenant- 
Governor. In 1867 under the British North America 
Act the maritime provinces, Ontario and Quebec, were 
each given an equal representation of twenty-four 
Senators. Since that time the entrance of other provinces 
into the Federation has increased the number of Senators 
to seventy-eight. The maximum allowed by law is 
eighty-four in all, including the constitutional provision 
allowing an addition of three or six new members to 
meet the case of a deadlock in political matters. 

Senators are appointed by the Governor-General on 
the recommendation of his Privy Council. They must 
be not less than thirty years of age and possess real or 
personal property of not less than 4,000 dollars beyond 
their liabilities. Subject to these provisions the Senator 
holds his place for life, though he may resign his place 
in the Senate. If any question should arise with regard 
to the qualifications of the Senator the matter is heard 
and determined by the Senate itself. 

Fifteen Senators, including the Speaker, constitute a 
quorum, and questions before the Senate are decided by 
a majority of voices, the Speaker in all cases having a 
vote, and if the voices are equal the decision is deemed 
to be in the negative. 

The Speaker, or President of the House is appointed 

212 



THE HOUSE OF COMMONS 



by the Governor-General in council. Like the British 
House of Lords the Senate possesses the same powers 
of introducing bills as the House of Commons, except 
with regard to money bills, measures imposing taxes, or 
spending public money received from the people. 

All such measures originate in the Lower House and the 
Senate cannot amend them. Those Senators appointed 
for the province of Quebec must live in the divisions 
which they represent, or have their property qualifications 
therein, but in the case of other provinces it is only 
necessary the members should reside within their province. 
Bankruptcy, absence during two sessions, crime, or 
naturalisation in another country debars a Senator from 
the privileges of the House. 

The House of Commons, as the direct representatives 
of the people, is naturally the ruling house of Canada : the 
Ministry is largely chosen from it, and without its support 
and confidence no ministry can exist. 

For some years after 1867 the number of members 
amounted to 215, but in 1903 (after the census of 1901) 
the representation was arranged as follows : — 



< 



\ 



Ontario 






. 86 


Quebec 






. 65 


New Brunswick 






13 


Nova Scotia 






18 


Prince Edward Island 






4 


Manitoba 






. 10 


British Columbia 






7 


North-West Territories 






10 


Yukon Territory 






1 



214 



After every decennial census (the last was taken in 1901) 
the representation is readjusted, in accordance with 
the movement of the population. The province of Quebec 
must always have a fixed number of sixty-five members^ 

213 

15— (2137) 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

and each of the other provinces is assigned such a number 
of members as to bear the same proportion to its popu- 
lation as the number sixty-five bears to the population 
of Quebec. 

In the terms of Union it is provided that British 
Columbia shall not have her . representatives reduced 
below six. 

The Dominion Franchise 

The Dominion Franchise is a most liberal measure, 
which provides, generally speaking, that all male citizens 
over the age of twenty-one years, who are not, by Act 
or otherwise disqualified, are entitled to vote. The 
qualifications necessary to entitle any person to vote in 
a Dominion election are, except as otherwise provided, 
those established by the laws of each province as necessary 
to .entitle persons to vote in the provinces at a provincial 
election. But, as these laws differ somewhat in detail, 
it may be well to set out the qualifications imposed in 
some of them : — 

In the province of Ontario every man who is over the 
age of twenty-one years, or will be of that age within 
thirty days after the day fixed for hearing appeals to the 
judge under the Provincial Act ; is a British subject by 
birth or naturalisation ; is not disqualified under the 
Act or otherwise by law prohibited from voting ; has 
resided in Canada for the nine months preceding the day 
for commencing to prepare the list on which he is to be 
entered ; is a resident of and domiciled in the territory 
for which the list is being prepared, is entitled to be 
entered on the voters' list. 

In Quebec it is provided that the following persons, and 
no others, being males, and who at the time of the deposit 
of the list are of the full age of twenty-one years, subjects 
of His Majesty by birth or naturalisation and not other- 
wise legally disqualified, shall be entered on the list of 
electors : — 

214 



, THE FRANCHISE— QUEBEC 

1. Owners or occupants of immovable property valued 
at a sum of at least three hundred dollars in real value 
in any city municipality entitled to return one or more 
members to the legislative Assembly, or two hundred 
dollars in real value or twenty dollars in annual value in 
any other municipality. 

2. Tenants paying an annual rent for immovable 
property of at least thirty dollars in any city municipality 
entitled to return one or more members to the legislative 
Assembly, or at least twenty dollars in any other muni- 
cipality, provided that the real value of such immovable 
property be at least 300 dollars in such city municipality 
or 200 dollars in any other municipality. 

3. Teachers engaged in an institution under the control 
of School Commissioners or Trustees. 

4. Retired farmers or proprietors, commonly known 
as rentiers (annuitants), who, in virtue of a deed of gift, 
sale or otherwise, receive a rent in money or kind of a 
value of at least 100 dollars, including lodging and other 
things appreciable in money. 

5. Farmers' sons who have been working for at least 
one year on their father's farm, if such farm is of sufficient 
value, if divided between the father and sons as co- 
proprietors, to qualify them as electors under this chapter, 
or who have been working on their mother's farm for 
the same time. If there are more sons than one they 
shall all be entered in so far as the value of the property 
permits, the eldest being entered first. These provisions 
equally apply in cases in which the father or the mother 
have farms in several municipalities. 

6. Proprietors' sons residing with their father or mother, 
subject to the conditions set forth in paragraph 5, mutatis 
mutandis. 

7. Navigators and fishermen residing in the electoral 
district and owners or occupants of real property and 
owners of boats, nets, fishing gear and tackle, within 

215 



THE DOMINION OP CANADA 

any such electoral district, or of a share or shares in a 
registered ship, which together are of the actual value of 
at least 150 dollars. 

8. Farmers' sons shall exercise the above rights, even 
if the father or mother is only tenant or occupant of the 
farm. 

9. Temporary absence from the farm or establishment 
of his father or mother, during six months of the year 
in all, or absence as a " student " shall not deprive the 
son of the exercise of the electoral franchise. 

10. Priests, Rectors, Vicaires, Missionaries and Ministers 
of any religious denomination, domiciled for upwards of 
two months in the place for which the list is made. 

11. Persons who are domiciled in the electoral district 
and who draw from their salary or wages, in money or in 
kind, or from some business, employment, trade or 
profession, a revenue of at least 300 dollars per annum, 
or persons who work by the piece in factories and who 
derive at least 300 dollars per annum therefrom. 

In Manitoba it is provided that every person shall be 
entitled to be registered as an elector, and to vote at 
elections of members if such person is of the male sex ; 
is of the full age of twenty-one years ; is a British subject 
by birth or naturalisation ; and has resided within 
the province for one year and within the electoral 
division for which he makes application to be registered as 
an elector, for the three months next preceding the date 
of the commencement of a registration of the electors. 

In the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta every 
male person, unless disqualified, shall be qualified to 
vote for the election of a member, who, not being an 
Indian, is a British subject and has resided in either of 
the said provinces for at least twelve months, and in the 
electoral district where he seeks to vote, for at least three 
months, immediately preceding the issue of the writ of 
election. 

216 



THE OFFICERS OF PARLIAMENT 

In British Columbia, every male of the full age of 
twenty-one years, not being disqualified, being entitled 
within the province to the privileges of a natural born 
British subject, and being able to read the Act or any 
portion thereof on being required by the Registrar to 
do so, having resided in the province for six months and 
in the electoral district for which he claims to vote for 
one month immediately previous to sending in his claim, 
and being duly registered as an elector, shall be entitled 
to vote at any election. It is enacted that no Chinaman, 
Japanese or Indian shall have his name placed on the 
Register of Voters for any Electoral District, or be 
entitled to vote at any election. 

The effect of this law is to give one member to every 
22,477 persons throughout the Dominion. Membership 
of the House of Commons, as in England, is dependent 
upon property qualifications, and the only stipulation is 
that a member should be a British subject by birth or 
naturalisation. The member need not reside in the 
district for which he is elected. Bankruptcy or convic- 
tion of a felony carries with it expulsion from the House, 
as is also the case with insanity. 

In each house the Clerk or Chief permanent officer is 
appointed by the Governor-General in Council. 

Another survival of English House of Commons tradi- 
tions is the Sergeant-at-Arms who is Chief executive 
officer of the House and carries the Mace before the 
Speaker on official occasions when parliament is sitting. 
There is, too, the " gentleman-usher of the black rod," 
who, as in England, summons the Commons to attend 
the Governor-General in the Senate Chamber at the 
beginning and end of parliament. 

Judges of superior or county courts are debarred from 
voting ; revising or returning officers, election clerks, 
agents, etc., who are paid for their services may not 
vote in the district for which they are engaged. Deputy 

217 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

returning officers, poll clerks, and unpaid agents may 
vote. The Returning Officer in the case of a tie is entitled 
to vote as in England. Electors may vote in more than 
one district when entitled to do so, but since general 
elections are held on the same day throughout Canada the 
plural voter is for that as well as other reasons — distances, 
for instance — not at so great an advantage as in England. 
The only exception to the case of simultaneous elections 
is made in a few of the remoter districts where returning 
officers fix a day which will allow the electors the full 
opportunity of recording their votes. 

When the Cabinet decides that a general election is 
necessary the Premier informs the Governor-General, 
and the latter agreeing, parliament is dissolved by pro- 
clamation in the name of the King. A further proclama- 
tion authorises the issue of writs and fixes the day for 
the nomination of candidates. Any twenty-five electors 
may nominate a candidate for the House of Commons 
by filling up a form required by law and depositing 200 
dollars with the Returning Officer, which is forfeited unless 
the candidate receives half the number of votes obtained 
by the man elected. Elections, except in the remote 
districts, take place on the seventh day after nomination 
day ; all votes are by ballot and entirely secret. 

The method of voting is practically the same as that 
in England, the name of the candidates being printed 
on the election papers, and the elector placing a cross 
against the one for whom he wishes to vote. Ballot 
papers are put into locked boxes and opened only by the 
Returning Officer. Polling takes place by law from nine 
in the morning until five in the afternoon of election day, 
and six days afterwards the Returning Officer must send 
in his report to the clerk of the Crown in Chancery at 
Ottawa, and the names of the members elected are 
published in the Canada Gazette which is the equivalent 
of the Londoji Gazette. 

218 



ELECTIONS 

Before parliament can meet a further proclamation of 
the Governor-General is necessary. By the Act of 1867 
there must be a Session of Parliament once at least every 
twelve months, that is to say, that there must not be a 
gap of more than twelve months between the close of one 
session and the beginning of another. Parliament is 
elected for five years, but the Crown may dissolve it at 
any time when it is considered expedient to appeal to the 
people ; this power naturally is never exercised except 
on the advice of the Cabinet. 

In the case of a by-election, the Speaker of the House 
of Commons or other authority issues a warrant to the 
clerk of the Crown in Chancery instructing him to issue 
the writ for an election ; this writ is given to a Returning 
Officer appointed by the Governor-General in council 
and thereafter the polling proceeds as in the case of a 
general election. 

All Senators and members of the House of Commons 
are required to take an oath of allegiance before they 

can sit ; the oath runs thus : — " I do swear that I 

will be faithful and bear true allegiance to His Majesty 
King George V." 

The laws for the prevention of bribery and corruption 
are very strict, and any infraction provides a case for 
the unseating of a member, equally where the law is broken 
by design or purely through carelessness. If a candidate 
be proved to be personally guilty of bribery or corruption 
he may be disqualified from sitting in the House of 
Commons, or voting, or holding any office for seven 
years, and the voter proved to have taken bribes may 
be also very severely punished. Since 1874 the House 
of Commons has handed to the provincial Courts its 
powers for the trial of disputed elections, and in so 
doing removed what must have remained a great tempta- 
tion for the committees of the House of Commons to be 
influenced by political feeling. The presence of at least 

219 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

twenty members of the House of Commons is necessary 
to constitute a quorum, for the exercise of its powers 
and for all purposes the Speaker may be reckoned as a 
member. Questions arising in the House are decided 
by a majority of voices. 

Provincial Legislatures 

For legislative purposes Canada is divided into the 
provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward 
Island, Quebec, Ontario Manitoba, Saskatchewan, 
Alberta and British Columbia, each of which enjoys by 
the British North America Act considerable powers of 
local government. 

The work of the provinces is carried on by a Lieutenant- 
Governor appointed by the Governor-General in 
council ; an Advisory Council, which is responsible to 
the Legislature ; and a Legislature consisting in all cases 
of elected representatives, assisted in the case of two 
provinces by an upper chamber appointed by the Crown. 
There is a complete system of local self-government in 
every municipality of a province to provide for the 
management of schools, etc., and a municipal system 
of councils composed of Mayors, Wardens, Reeves 
and Councillors to manage the local requirements of 
the cities, towns, counties, and parishes of every 
province. 

The judiciary consists of several courts in each province, 
presided over by judges who are appointed and paid by 
the Dominion Government. Each provincial government 
has its own Civil Service, with officers appointed by it. 
The pernicious system of removing Civil Servants with 
a change of government does not exist in Canada, and 
every civil servant holds office during good behaviour. 
The Lieutenant-Governor holds office for five years. 
He can be dismissed for some definite cause but the reason 
for his dismissal must be communicated to Parliament. 

220 



THE PROVINCIAL LEGISLATURES 

He is thus the officer of the Dominion Government as 
well as being the head of the Provincial Government ; 
and within his constitutional limits he possesses all the 
authority of a Governor-General. 

Under the British North America Act he it is who 
appoints the legislative council. He can summon, 
prorogue, and dissolve the legislature, and in fact perform 
any executive acts by the advice of his Council which 
may be necessary for governing the Province. 

The Advisory, or Executive Council, varies in number 
from five members in British Columbia to eight members 
in Ontario. Each member holds usually some provincial 
office as head of a department. In some cases the titles 
of these heads of departments vary, but there are certain 
officers who are to be found in all. The Attorney-General 
is the law adviser of the provincial government, and 
generally oversees the administration of justice in the 
province. There is also a Commissioner of Crown lands 
whose duty it is to supervise the sale of public lands 
or lease areas for timber cutting, or supervise mining 
lands, and since lands and forests belong, with the 
exception of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta, to 
the provincial governments, this is a most important 
office. 

The provincial Treasurer administers the financial 
affairs of the province, with a provincial Secretary to 
carry on the correspondence of the government and 
keep in touch with the Dominion government, register 
Commissions under the provincial seal, and so forth. 
In Nova Scotia and British Columbia, where the mines 
are of great value, there is a special department for their 
management. In the purely agricultural provinces there 
is a Minister who supervises particularly the agricultural 
interests and encourages every movement which has for 
its object the improvement of agriculture or dairying. 

In Ontario, where is situated the University of Toronto, 

221 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

education is of sufficient importance to warrant the 
existence of a Minister of Education as elsewhere. 

The provincial legislature consists of a Lieutenant- 
Governor and a legislative assembly, except in the case 
of Quebec and Nova Scotia, which have in addition a 
Legislative Council. Prince Edward Island has another 
exception, which will be dealt with later. The Legislative 
assemblies are elected by the people of the provinces 
on a very full franchise. In Ontario, New Brunswick, 
Manitoba, and British Columbia, manhood suffrage is 
the rule, and this practically applies to Prince Edward 
Island. No property qualification is required, but voters 
must be British born or naturalised British subjects, 
and male citizens of the age of twenty-one years or over. 
The method of conducting elections is practically the same 
as that described in our chapter on the Dominion 
Parliament. 

The laws governing the conduct of provincial business, 
and preserving the integrity of the Dominion Parliaments 
is modelled upon the lines of that relating to the Dominion 
Government. 

In the case of disputed elections, provincial judges 
try the case, and the result has been found to be perfectly 
satisfactory. The life of a provincial legislature which 
is within its own jurisdiction is four years, or in Quebec 
five years, unless it is dissolved by the Lieutenant- 
Governor. In the popular assemblies the Speaker is 
elected by the majority, or in the case of an Upper 
Chamber is appointed by the Cro"WTi. The Lieutenant- 
Governor opens, prorogues, and dissolves the assembly. 

Members of the Council hold their position for life, 
unless they are convicted of a crime, or become bankrupt, 
or are otherwise disqualified by law. The Quebec Council 
consists of twenty-four members, and that of Nova 
Scotia of twenty. Their position is exactly analogous 
to that of the Senate of the Dominion. They can initiate 

222 



THE PAYMENT OF MEMBERS 

or amend all classes of bills except money or taxation, 
and though they may reject such bills as a whole they 
have no power to amend them. 

Sessional Indemnity 

The payment of Members of the Federal Parliament 
has been in vogue ever since Confederation. It has been 
found in practice to work well ; while not acting as a 
deterrent to men in a good financial position entering 
Parliament, it has enabled many, who would otherwise 
have been unable to do so, to use their talents in aiding 
in the government of their country. Changes have, from 
time to time, been made in the legislation on the subject, 
and a short summary of the parent Act, and the 
amendments thereto, may prove of interest : — 

An Act relating to the indemnity to members, and to 
the salaries of the Speakers of the House of Commons 
and of the Senate, was passed in the first session of 
Parliament after Confederation. This measure provided 
that the members of both Houses should receive remunera- 
tion at the rate of six dollars per day, if the session did 
not extend beyond thirty days ; if it extended beyond 
thirty days, an allowance of 600 dollars was made, and 
no more. In the case of non-attendance, both in this 
Act and subsequent amendments, deductions are provided 
for. To the Speakers of the House of Commons and the 
Senate, a salary of 3,200 dollars per annum was made 
payable. This Act was amended in the session of 1873, 
when it was laid down that the rate of the indemnity 
should be ten dollars for each day's attendance when the 
session did not exceed thirty days, and, if this period 
was ex:ceeded, a sessional allowance of 1,000 dollars was 
to be paid. The salaries of the Speakers of the House 
of Commons and the Senate were, by this Act, increased to 
4,000 dollars per annum. In 1901 another amendment 
came into effect. The daily rate of remuneration 

223 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

remained the same, viz., ten dollars for each day of 
attendance ; but the amount payable to each member, in 
the event of the session extending beyond thirty days, 
was increased to 1,500 dollars. The Act was again 
amended in 1905, when the daily allowance was increased 
to twenty dollars for each day's attendance to thirty days ; 
and, in the event of the session extending over thirty-one 
days, a sessional indemnity of 2,500 dollars, and no more, 
was payable. In addition to the daily allowance or the 
sessional indemnity, it is provided that there shall, for 
each session of Parliament, be allowed to Members of 
both Houses their moving or transportation expenses, 
and reasonable living expenses while on the journey 
between their places of residence and Ottawa, once each 
way. Members residing at a greater distance than 400 
miles from Ottawa are allowed to commute their travelling 
and living allowance, receiving in lieu, the sum of 
fifteen dollars per day. 

A novel feature in this measure was contained in a 
clause which provides that, to the member occupying 
the recognised position of leader of the Opposition in the 
House of Commons, there shall be payable an additional 
sessional allowance of 7,000 dollars. 

A sessional indemnity is paid by all the Provinces to 
the members of their several legislatures. In Ontario 
the allowance is ten dollars a day if the session does 
not extend beyond thirty days, and if the session does 
extend beyond thirty days, then there shall be payable 
to each member attending a sessional allowance of such 
sum as may be appropriated for the purpose. In Quebec 
for every session which extends beyond thirty days there 
is payable to each Legislative Councillor and to each 
member of the Legislature an indemnity of 1,500 dollars 
and no more. In Manitoba the allowance is fixed at 
400 dollars per session ; and in British Columbia there is 
an allowance of 600 dollars. 

224 



JURISDICTION 

The following are the powers conferred by the B. N. A. 
Act upon the Dominion Government : — 

1. The pubHc debt and property. 

2. The regulation of trade and commerce. 

3. The raising of money by any mode or system of 
taxation. 

4. The borrowing of money on the public credit. 

5. Postal service. 

6. The census and statistics. 

7. Militia, military and naval service and defence. 

8. The fixing of, and providing for the salaries and 
allowances of civil and other officers of the Government 
of Canada. 

9. Beacons, buoys, lighthouses and Sable Island. 

10. Navigation and shipping. 

1 1 . Quarantine and the establishment and maintenance 
of marine hospitals. 

12. Sea coast and inland fisheries. 

13. Ferries between a province and any British or 
foreign country, or between two provinces. 

14. Currency and coinage. 

15. Banking, and the incorporation of banks and 
paper money. 

16. Savings banks. 

17. Weights and measures. 

18. Bills of exchange and promissory notes. 

19. Interest. 

20. Legal tender. 

21. Bankruptcy and insolvency. 

22. Patents of invention and discovery. 

23. Copyrights. 

24. Indians and land reserved for the Indians. 

25. Naturalisation and aliens. 

26. Marriage and divorce. 

27. The criminal law, except the constitution of the 

225 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

courts of criminal jurisdiction, but including the procedure 
in criminal matters. 

28. The establishment, maintenance and management 
of penitentiaries. 

29. Such classes of subjects as are expressly excepted 
in the enumeration of the classes of subject by this Act 
assigned exclusively to the legislatures of the provinces. 

The exclusive powers of Provincial Legislatures are 
as follows : — 

1. The amendment from time to time, notwithstanding 
anything in this Act, of the constitution of the province, 
except as regards the office of the Lieutenant-Governor. 

2. Direct taxation within the province for the raising 
of a revenue for provincial purposes. 

3. The borrowing of money on the sole credit of the 
province. 

4. The establishment and tenure of provincial offices, 
and the appointment of provincial officials. 

5. The management and sale of the public lands belong- 
ing to the province, and of the timber and wood thereon. 

6. The establishment, maintenance and management 
of public and reformatory prisons in and for the province. 

7. The establishment, maintenance and management 
of hospitals, asylums, charities, and eleemosynary institu- 
tions in and for the province, other than marine hospitals. 

8. Municipal institutions in the province. 

9. Shop, saloon, tavern, auctioneer, and other licences, 
for the raising of a revenue for provincial, local, or 
municipal purposes. 

10. Local works and undertakings, other than such as 
are of the following classes : — 

(a) Lines of steam or other ships, railways, canals, 
telegraphs, and other works and undertakings 
connecting the province with any other or others 
of the provinces, or extending beyond the limits 
of the province. 

226 



PUBLIC LANDS 

{b) Lines of steamships between the province and 
any British or foreign country. 

(c) Such works as, although wholly situate within the 
province, are before or after their execution 
declared by the parliament of Canada to be for 
the general advantage of Canada or for the 
advantage of two or more of the provinces. 

IL The incorporation of companies with provincial 
objects. 

12. Solemnization of marriage in the province. 

13. Property and civil rights in the province. 

14. The administration of justice in the province, in- 
cluding the constitution, maintenance and organisation of 
provincial courts both of civil and of criminal jurisdiction, 
and including procedure in civil matters in those courts. 

15. The imposition of punishment by fine, penalty or 
imprisonment for enforcing any law of the province made 
in relation to any matter coming within any of the classes 
of subjects enumerated in this section. 

16. Generally all matters of a merely local or private 
nature in the province. 

Public Lands 

The Public Lands in Canada are those which are 
administered by the Dominion Government and are called 
" Dominion Lands " and those which are at the disposal 
of the several Provincial Governments and are known 
as " Crown Lands." 

Dominion Lands are situated in Western Canada and 
what is known as the Railway Belt in British Columbia, 
and are dealt with under the provisions of the Dominion 
Lands Act. The system of survey which has been 
adopted is to lay out the lands in quadrilateral townships, 
each containing thirty-six sections of about a mile square 
or 640 acres ; the sections are situated and numbered 
as shown in the diagram given on the next page. 

227 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

The Townships are numbered in regular order northerly 
from the International boundary or 49th parallel of 
latitude and lie in Ranges numbered, in Manitoba, east 
and west, from a meridian Hne called the Principal 
Meridian, drawn northerly from the 49th parallel, and 
in Saskatchewan and Alberta, in Ranges numbered 

PLAN OF TOWNSHIP 
N 

SIX M1I.K8 SQUARE 



V/E 



J 


[ 




r 






T\ 


' 








'■ 














— : 












































— 1 






















^_ 




























































































I— 
































































1 




^^ 



westerly from other initial meridians styled the Second, 
Third and Fourth Meridian and so on, according to their 
order westward from the Principal Meridian. 

Each section (640 acres) in a township is sub-divided 
into half-sections (320 acres) and quarter-sections of 
160 acres. A quarter-section is again divided to quarter- 
sections called " legal sub-divisions." The thirty-six 
sections in a township are numbered from 1 to 36. 

All surveyed agricultural Dominion lands (excepting 
School Lands — sections 11 and 29, and Hudson's Bay 
Company's Lands — section 8 and three-quarters and 
sometimes the whole of 26) are open to entry for home- 
stead purposes by settlers if not disposed of and not 
reserved or occupied. Islands which are Dominion lands 

228 



FREE GRANTS OF LAND 



in Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta are, however, 
reserved from entry and an entry does not include mineral 
or water rights. Moreover a quarter-section containing 
more than twenty-five acres of merchantable timber is 
not open to entry, 

PLAN OF SUB-DIVISION 

N. 



W 



13 


14 


15 


16 


12 


11 


10 


9 


5 


6 


7 


8 


4 


3 


2 


1 



E 



S. 

Under the Homestead regulations every person who is 
the sole head of a family and every male who has attained 
the age of eighteen and is a British subject, or declares 
his intention to become one, is entitled to obtain entry 
for a homestead to the extent of one quarter-section 
(160 acres), on payment of an entry fee of ten dollars. 
A widow having minor children of her own dependent 
on her for support may make entry as the sole head 
of a family, but a widow who is remarried thereby ceases 
to be the sole head of a family, and is not eligible to 
make entry. Application may be either at the land 
agency for the district in which the land is situate, or 
at the office of a sub-agent authorised to transact business 
in the district, and must be made by the applicant in 
person, although in certain cases application by proxy 
is permitted. The entry entitles the holder to occupy 
and cultivate the land to the exclusion of any other 
person, the title remaining in the Crown until a patent 

229 

l6— <2I37) 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

is issued. The conditions to be complied with before 
a patent is issued comprise : — 

(1) At least six months' residence in each year during 
a term of three years. 

(2) The value of the entrant's house upon the home- 
stead shall be at least 300 dollars. Residence means 
actual and bona fide residence in a dwelling-house by the 
entrant in person upon the homestead, or in accordance 
with the vicinity provisions of the Act. A homesteader 
may, if he so desires, perform the required residence 
duties by living on a farm owned solely by him, not less 
than eighty acres in extent, in the vicinity of his home- 
stead. The term " vicinity " means not more than 
nine miles in a direct line. If a father, mother, son, 
daughter, brother or sister of a homesteader has permanent 
residence on a farm owned solely by him or her, not less 
than eighty acres in extent, in the vicinity of the home- 
stead, such homesteader may perform his own residence 
duties by living with such relative as the case may be. 

The practice of the Canadian Department of the Interior 
which administers the Act, has been to require a settler 
residing on his homestead to bring a total of at least 
fifteen acres under cultivation. A settler performing 
residence duties by living in the vicinity of his homestead, 
either with parents, or with son, daughter, brother, or 
sister, or on land owned by him must bring a total of at 
least thirty acres of the homestead imder cultivation, 
and a reasonable proportion of the cultivation must in 
all cases be done in each year. All entries made prior 
to June 1st, 1908, are governed by this practice, but 
the following change has come into force since that 
date : — 

A homesteader who resides on his homestead is required 
to break a total of at least thirty acres of the homestead 
(of which twenty must be cropped) before appl3ang for 
his patent, and a reasonable proportion of the cultivation 

230 



A GENEROUS LAW 

duties must be done during each year. If the duties 
are performed under the regulations permitting residence 
in the vicinity, the total required to be broken will be 
at least fifty acres of which thirty must be cropped. 

A homesteader is allowed six months from the date of 
entry in which to perfect the same by taking possession 
of the land and beginning his residence duties in connection 
therewith. 

In the event of the death of an entrant for a homestead 
before the completion of the requirements for the obtain- 
ing of letters patent therefor, his legal representative 
shall only be required to fulfil the conditions as to the 
erection of a habitable house and as to cultivation in 
order to entitle him to obtain letters patent, after the 
expiration of three years from the date of the entry for 
the homestead ; or the legal representative may assign 
the homestead to a person eligible to obtain a homestead 
entry ; and the assignee shall, after 

(1) the expiration of three years from the date of entry 
for the homestead ; 

(2) holding the homestead for his own exclusive use 
and benefit from the date of the assignment, and 

(3) completing the residence and cultivation require- 
ments in the same manner as the person who made the 
entry would have been required to complete them, be 
entitled to letters patent for homestead. The assignee 
does not thereby exhaust his homestead right. 

If a homesteader dies before perfecting entry by com- 
mencement of residence within six months, the entry 
becomes liable to cancellation. The Department may, 
however, on application, extend the time for the perform- 
ance of the duties if the legal representatives have taken 
out letters of administration or have them in course of 
preparation with the intention of performing the required 
duties ; but not in the case of a settler who has obtained 
a homestead entry by proxy unless he had personally 

231 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

appeared at the Agency or commenced actual residence 
on the homestead. 

In the event of any person who obtained entry for a 
homestead becoming insane or mentally incapable, and, 
•by reason of such insanity or mental incapacity, unable 
to complete the requirements necessary for the obtaining 
of letters patent therefor, the guardian or committee 
of the said person, or any person who, in the event of 
his death, would be entitled as his legal representative 
to do so, shall only be required to fulfil the conditions 
as to the erection of a habitable house, and as to cultiva- 
tion before the issue of letters patent ; but the letters 
patent shall not issue until the expiration of three years 
from the date of entry. 

If a homesteader becomes insane or mentally incapable 
before perfecting entry by commencement of residence 
within six months, the entry becomes liable to cancellation. 
The Department may, however, on application, extend 
the time for the performance of duties by the guardian 
or legal representative, but not in the case of a proxy 
entrant unless he had personally appeared at the Agency 
or commenced actual residence on the homestead. 

In addition to the privilege of homesteading which is 
granted, under the conditions stated, to settlers, Purchased 
Homesteads may be acquired under the conditions 
provided in the Dominion Lands Act within the area 
bounded on the south by the International Boundary 
line, on the north by the north line of the 44th township, 
on the east by the line of the Minneapolis, St. Paul and 
Sault Ste Marie Railway from the International boundary 
to Canadian Pacific Railway main line to the 3rd Prin- 
cipal Meridian, then by the 3rd Principal Meridian to the 
north line of the 44th township ; on the east by the 
west line of Range 26, west of the fourth Meridian, 
and from the International Boundary to the Calgary and 
Edmonton Railway line, then by the Calgary and 

232 



PURCHASED HOMESTEADS 

Edmonton Railway line to the north line of the 44th 
township. 

Pre-emptions may be acquired within the same area 
except that, in townships in which any railway company 
has taken eight sections as part of its land grant, no 
pre-emption may be taken. 

A person is eligible to pre-empt any available quarter- 
section lying alongside the homestead, or separated 
therefrom only by a road allowance, on payment of a fee 
of ten dollars — if he obtains entry for a homestead under 
the Act of 1908 and continues to own and reside upon 
the land included therein, and does not hold, or has 
not assigned his right to, or has not received patent for a 
pre-emption under that or any previous Act ; or has 
obtained entry for a homestead under the provisions of 
Chapter 55 of the Revised Statutes, 1906, or any previous 
Act in that behalf, and continues to own the land included 
therein, and does not hold, or has not assigned his right 
to, or has not received patent for a pre-emption under 
the present or any previous Act. 

The homesteader becomes entitled to patent for his 
pre-emption by — 

(1) Residing for six months in each of six years on 
either his homestead or pre-emption. If the residence 
duties for the homestead and pre-emption are performed 
upon the pre-emption the entrant will not become entitled 
to a patent for his homestead until he becomes entitled 
to a patent for his pre-emption. 

(2) Erecting a dwelling-house on his homestead or 
pre-emption. 

In the case of entries granted on or after February 
1st, 1909, it is required that the house shall be worth 
at least 300 dollars before application for patent is made. 

(3) Cultivating eighty acres of either the homestead 
or pre-emption, or both, a reasonable proportion of which 
must be done each year. 

233 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

(4) Paying for the pre-emption at the rate of three dollars 
an acre. One-third of the purchase money must be paid 
three years after date of entry, and the balance in five equal 
instalments. Interest at five per cent, is payable at the 
end of each year from the date of the pre-emption entry. 

A patent can be claimed at any time after completion 
of the duties on paying the price in full and unless claimed 
within eight years the pre-emption may be cancelled. 

The provision of the Dominion Lands Act permitting 
residence on land in the vicinity of the homestead does 
not apply to pre-emption. 

A homesteader in a township not available for pre- 
emption may apply for a pre-emption entry on an 
adjoining township, the lands of which are available for 
pre-emption entry, if his homestead joins, as provided, the 
land for which he desires to make such pre-emption entry. 

If application for pre-emption entry is made for a 
quarter-section of land lying within a land district other 
than the one in which the applicant's homestead is 
situated, the Agent of the district in which the pre-emption 
is situated shall receive the application, and file the same 
with such evidence as the applicant may be in a position 
to offer, and he shall withhold the issue of the receipt for 
entry until he has obtained from the Agent of the district 
in which the applicant's homestead is situated, satis- 
factory proof that the applicant is the entrant for the 
land so claimed for the homestead, and that the entry 
is in good standing so far as his records show. 

There is also, under the Dominion Lands Act, provision 
for Purchased Homesteads which may be acquired on 
any available lands on either odd or even numbered 
sections south of township 45, east of the Calgary and 
Edmonton Railway and the west line of Range 26, and 
west of the Third Meridian and the " Soo " Railway line. 

Anyone is eligible to obtain entry as a Purchased 
Homestead any available quarter- section open for entry, 

234 



PURCHASED HOMESTEADS 

on payment of a fee of ten dollars, who holds a homestead 
entry under the provisions of the Dominion Lands Act, 
1908, or under any previous Act in that behalf, but owing 
to the absence of available land adjoining his homestead 
is prevented from exercising his right of pre-emption 
entry ; or has obtained entry for a homestead for which 
he has received or become entitled to letters patent or 
has otherwise exhausted his homestead right, but has 
not received entry or patent for a pre-emption or assigned 
his right thereto, and may, after the issue of patent for his 
homestead, or upon completing the requirements requisite 
to obtaining letters patent therefor to the satisfaction of 
the Agent of Dominion Lands for the district, as provided 
by the Act, or by regulation or order made thereunder, 
obtain entry as a Purchased Homestead for any available 
quarter section open for entry on payment of a fee of ten 
dollars. 

A widow who has secured homestead entry as the sole 
head of a family and has afterwards remarried is not 
eligible to make a Purchased Homestead entry. No 
person who has received a patent for a Purchased Home- 
stead may receive entry for another. The applicant 
for entry for a Purchased Homestead must make a 
statutory declaration as to his previous Homestead right 
and as to his present right to a Purchased Homestead 
on the form provided. If the applicant for a Purchased 
Homestead has not received patent for his Free Home- 
stead, the recommendation by the Land Agent of his 
application for patent will be considered sufficient evidence 
of completion of his duties on his Free Homestead to 
warrant his entry for a Purchased Homestead. An 
entrant for Purchased Homestead before the issue of 
patent for his Free Homestead who fails to secure patent 
for his Free Homestead, shall thereby forfeit his entry 
for a Purchased Homestead. Entry for a Purchased 
Homestead cannot be made by proxy. A person whose 

335 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

application for patent has been recommended by the 
Agent may be allowed to enter for a Purchased Home- 
stead, although there may be land alongside his Home- 
stead available for pre-emption entry. But if he so 
elects to enter for a Purchased Homestead he shall not, 
unless such entry is cancelled, be given entry for a 
pre-emption. 

The Homestead purchaser becomes entitled to patent 
by- 

(1) Residing for six months in each of three years 
upon the Purchased Homestead. 

(2) Erecting upon it a habitable house of a value of at 
least 300 dollars. 

(3) Cultivating fifty acres of the land, a reasonable 
proportion of which must be done in each of three years, 
during two of which the breaking must be in crop. 

(4) Paying for it at the rate of three dollars an acre. 

If the entrant for a Purchased Homestead resides upon 
his own farm of not less than eighty acres within nine miles 
'of the Purchased Homestead, exclusive of the width of 
road allowance crossed in the measurement, residence 
upon such farm is accepted as residence upon his Purchased 
Homestead. Residence with relatives in the vicinity is 
not allowed. 

Payment must be made, one-third at the date of entry 
and the balance in five equal annual instalments with 
interest at five per cent, from the date of entry ; but pay- 
ment may be made in full at any time after completion 
of the duties and patent demanded. Default in payment 
of interest or of instalments when due renders the Pur- 
chased Homestead liable to cancellation. If patent is 
not applied for within five years from date of entry, the 
entry may be cancelled. If an entrant for a Purchased 
Homestead fails in any year to fulfil the requirements 
of the Act in respect thereto, the Minister may cancel 
the entry and in his discretion cause to be refunded any 

236 



VOLUNTEERS AND LAND GRANTS 

moneys paid on account thereof, but no refunds can be 
made before six months have elapsed from the date of 
entry. Refunds of interest or of entry fees cannot be 
made. 

Volunteers domiciled in. Canada at the time of enlist- 
ment, who served with the British forces in South Africa 
during 1899 to 1902, or who arrived there, but owing to 
the close of the war, were not on active service, are 
entitled to a land grant of two adjoining sections of 
Dominion lands available for homestead entry in Western 
Canada subject to certain conditions. Enlisted female 
nurses have the same rights as volunteers. The warrants 
in favour of those entitled to such grants of land are 
issued by the Department of Militia and Defence and 
forwarded for record purposes to the Department of 
the Interior from which quarter the grantees obtain them 
to enable them to make entry, the last date for which 
is December 31st, 1910. No entry or patent fees are 
chargeable, and the location of this scrip either by the 
volunteer or his substitute does not exhaust the right of 
homestead entry to which such volunteer, or his substitute 
may otherwise be entitled. 

South African Volunteer scrip is not applicable on 
Dominion land within the Railway Belt in British 
Columbia. 

In accordance with the terms of certain Acts of Parlia- 
ment, scrip is issued in settlement of the rights of half- 
breeds who, because of their Indian blood, are permitted 
to share in the Indian right to lands in Manitoba, Saskat- 
chewan and Alberta, which scrip may be either " money 
scrip " or " land scrip," as the half-breed may have 
chosen at the time of issue. 

A half-breed who is entitled to scrip in his or her 
own right and who chooses to take money scrip receives 
scrip having a face value 240 dollars in payment to the 
Government for Government land. 

237 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

When a half-breed entitled to scrip has died before the 
scrip was issued, the scrip to which he was entitled is 
divided amongst his heirs. Such scrip may therefore be 
for lesser amounts than 240 dollars. 

Money scrip is accepted from bearer for payment for 
Government land. There is no registration of transfer 
of right in money scrip. 

A half-breed who is entitled to scrip in his own right 
and who chooses to take " land scrip," receives two scrips, 
one for 160 acres and the other for eighty acres of land. 

No settlement duties are required in securing title to 
land upon which half-breed land scrip has been applied, 
and patent may issue forthwith to the half-breed who 
has applied the land scrip or to the person to whom his 
right to the land has afterwards been assigned. 

Under regulations which came into force in May, 1910, 
the petroleum and gas rights, which are the property of 
the Crown, in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, the 
North-West Territories, the Yukon Territory, and within 
' the tract containing three and one-half million acres of 
land acquired by the Dominion Government from the 
province of British Columbia, and referred to in sub-section 
(6) of Section 3 of the Dominion Lands Act, may be 
leased to applicants at a rental of twenty-five cents an 
acre for the first year, and for each subsequent year a 
rental at the rate of fifty cents an acre, payable yearly 
in advance. The term of the lease shall be twenty-one 
years, renewable for a further term of twenty-one years, 
provided the lessee can furnish evidence satisfactory to 
the Minister of the Interior to show that during the term 
of the lease he has comphed fully with the conditions of 
such lease and with the provisions of the regulations in 
force from time to time during the currency of the lease. 
The term School Lands refers to those sections (11 
and 29) in every township throughout the extent of the 
Dominion Lands which are set apart as an endowment 

233 

/ 



PUBLIC LANDS 

in aid of education. These lands are administered by 
the Department of the Interior and are disposed of by 
sale at public auction, the sum realised being invested 
and the interest paid to the government of the province 
within which the lands are situated, towards the support 
of the schools. 

Hudson's Bay lands, which are also mentioned above, 
are those sections reserved to the Hudson's Bay Company 
under the terms and conditions of surrender from the 
Company to the Crown, by which the former is entitled 
to one-twentieth of the land within the " fertile belt." 

Public Lands in the Provinces 
Ontario public lands are under the control of the Crown 
Lands Department of the provincial government at 
Toronto. Agricultural lands can be obtained from the 
Crown by actual settlers subject to certain settlement 
conditions. Free grants are offered of not more than 
100 to 160 acres for a single man, and 160 to 200 acres for 
the head of a family, in the districts of what is known as 
New Ontario, comprising Nipissing, Algoma, Rainy 
River, etc. The settlement conditions include the erection 
of a habitable house at least 16 feet by 20 feet in size, 
and the clearing and cropping of fifteen acres, of which 
at least two are to be cleared and cultivated annually. 
There are slight differences in the different localities as 
to the time allowed for the payment of the purchase 
money and the number of years' residence required on the 
land before the issue of the patent. 

In certain parts of the area in which the Free Grant 
system prevails, the head of a family locating is entitled 
in addition to a free grant of 160 acres to purchase an 
additional 100 acres, and while required to clear and 
cultivate fifteen acres within five years is not bound to 
erect 'a home or reside on the purchased lot where it 
is held in connection with a Free Grant. 

239 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

In the province of Quebec, Crown Lands are purchasable 
from the provincial Crown Lands Department on easy 
terms. One-fifth of the purchase money is required to be 
paid down, and the remainder in four equal annual in- 
stalments bearing interest at six per cent. The purchaser 
must take possession within six months and to occupy the 
land within two years. He must also clear and crop ten 
acres in the course of four years, out of every hundred 
held by him and erect a habitable house at least 16 feet 
by 20 feet. 

Crown Lands in Nova Scotia can be obtained for 
settlement for eighty cents per acre, but no grant can issue 
for a less sum than forty dollars. All minerals and ores 
are reserved to the Crown except limestone, plaster and 
building materials. 

New Brunswick Crown Lands may be acquired to the 
extent of 100 acres by any settler over eighteen, not own- 
ing other land, who pays twenty dollars in cash, or does 
work on the public roads, etc., equal to ten dollars per 
•annum for three years. A house 16 feet by 20 feet must 
be built within two years, and two acres of land cleared. 
Continuous residence of three years and the cultivation 
of ten acres in that time are required. 

There are no Free Grant lands in Prince Edward Island, 
but such unimproved Crown and forest land as remains 
may be purchased at from twenty-five cents to one dollar 
per acre, on condition of erecting buildings valued at sixty- 
five dollars within two years and clearing and cultivating 
an acre yearly for the first eight years. Purchase money 
is payable by instalments. 

As before stated. Crown land within twenty miles of 
the Canadian Pacific Railway in the province of British 
Columbia is administered by the Dominion Government, 
and may be purchased on terms which are fixed by Order 
in Council ; the present price is five dollars an acre. 
These lands are also open for homestead purposes by 

240 



UNOCCUPIED CROWN LANDS 

settlers on the same conditions as regards residence and 
cultivation as in Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta. 

There are, of course, in addition, the Crown Lands 
belonging to the province. Any British subject who is 
the head of a family, a- widow, or a single man over 
eighteen, may acquire for agricultural purposes not more 
than 160 acres of unoccupied Crown Lands in any part 
of the province, by payment of a recording fee of two 
dollars. The purchase price is one dollar per acre payable 
by instalments. The settlement conditions are personal 
residence for two years and improvements of the value 
of two and a half dollars an acre. 



241 



CHAPTER III 

Defence — Militia 

To seek the origin of the Canadian mihtia one must 
go back to the days when Canada was peopled by trappers 
and fighters who Hved in a constant state of warfare 
with Indians, and of necessity were able to use their 
arms in self-defence. The first military organisation 
took place in the province of Quebec in 1649, and in 
1665 the militia was founded, and fought with the French 
Cavignon regiment against the Indians. Ten years 
later that great soldier diplomatist. Count Frontenac, 
re-organised the militia upon a basis which remained 
in force until 1760. 

After the conquest of Canada by the British the 
Canadian militia was disbanded, but on the rising of 
•Pontiac an urgent call was made which met with a most 
loyal response ; the militia under its French officers 
was the backbone of the British attack and defence in 
that celebrated rising. In 1792, King George III author- 
ised the raising of a regiment of militia in each province 
of Canada to be the permanent force and to carry the 
style of " Royal." Gradually the Royal regiment of 
Nova Scotia and the Royal New Brunswick regiment came 
into being, and two years later a regiment of Royal 
Canadian volunteers was recruited and officered by 
Canadians in Quebec and Upper Canada. 

In the war of 1812 against the United States, England, 
with her anxieties at home, was obliged to delegate the 
defence of Canada largely to the Canadian militia, and 
the story of their exploits may be found in the victories 
of Fort George, Queenstown, Lundy's Lane, and a dozen 
other hard-fought battles. During the risings of 1837-8 

242 



GARRISONS WITHDRAWN 

the militia was again called upon to support the regular 
army. With the union of Upper and Lower Canada 
the strength of the mihtia was increased from time to 
time at the request of the Imperial Government, and a 
new military law passed in 1835, the establishment to 
be raised and paid for by the government, was a practical 
step towards the local management of Canadian military 
affairs. 

By the Act of Confederation the administration passed 
from the provincial government to the central govern- 
ment, and since no great difference existed between the 
militia laws of the various provinces it was a comparatively 
easy task to reduce all the regiments to a uniform standard 
and group them in the form by means of a Dominion 
statute. A year later, in 1869, the militia of the Dominion 
became an army indeed. Since its last re-organisation 
in 1867 there has been little actual fighting for the militia 
to do, though in the form of police work it was put to 
a severe test in 1870 by the Fenian raid and the North- 
West rebellion, 1884, and by the Fenian raid of 1871. It 
is an interesting fact that the Prime Minister of Canada, 
Sir Wilfrid Laurier, earned a medal for services in the 
militia in the Fenian raid. 

It has been consistently a policy of the Imperial 
Government to hand over to Canada the responsibility of 
maintaining her own military force and defending her 
frontiers ; and with this end in view the British garrisons 
were withdrawn about the year 1870 from all stations 
except Halifax and Esquimalt. The culmination of the 
policy was reached when on 18th January, 1906, the 
remaining garrisons of Halifax and Esquimalt were 
handed over to Canadian control. There were many 
who had not hesitated to predict that the withdrawal of 
the British garrisons would be detrimental to Canada. 
Experience, however, has proved directly the opposite. 

In the Colonial Conference of 1902 a suggestion was 

243 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

made by the British Secretary of State for War, Mr. 
Brodrick, that a Canadian force should be trained, with 
the idea that they were part of the British army reserve, 
and that their services should be absolutely pledged to 
the British Government in the case of any serious emer- 
gency. This suggestion was not approved by the Canadian 
Ministers, for the vital reason that it would have involved 
a departure from the principle of self-government which 
Canada values as life itself. The Ministers, whilst 
dissenting from the proposed measures, fully realised 
the obligation of the Dominion to make expenditures 
for purposes of defence in proportion to the increasing 
population and wealth of the country. 

The militia force of to-day, as established by law, con- 
sists of three portions : the permanent force, the active 
militia, and the reserve militia. Section 10 of the 
Reserve Militia Act of Canada runs as follows : — " All 
the male inhabitants of Canada of the age of eighteen 
years and upwards, and under sixty, not exempt or 
disqualified by law, and being British subjects, shall 
be liable to service in the militia ; provided that the 
Governor-General may require all the male inhabitants 
of Canada capable of bearing arms to serve in the case 
of a ' levee en masse.' " A certain number of persons 
are exempt, amongst them members of the Privy Council, 
Judges, members of the Executive Council, Clergy, 
Telegraph Clerks, Revenue Clerks, Police and Fire 
Brigade, Professors in Universities, etc., together with 
persons who, from the doctrines of their religion are 
averse from bearing arms. 

The establishment permanent force, which up to 1904 
had an authorised strength of 1,000, was increased to 
5,000, and in 1910 the actual numbers were 277 officers 
and 4,677 N.C.O's. and men. 

The permanent force is distributed in depots, so that 
there may be, as far as possible, one military depot in 

244 



THE PERMANENT FORCE 

each district, and one or more in each of the larger 
provinces. Including Halifax there are two depots 
in the maritime provinces, three in Quebec, four in 
Ontario, one in Manitoba, and, counting Esquimalt, one 
in British Columbia. There is also a detachment of 
the Canadian Ordnance Corps at Calgary in Alberta, and 
another has been established in Montreal. The stations 
of the Permanent force of Canada are : — 

Quebec Quebec. 

Ottawa Ontario. 

St. Jean Quebec. 

Toronto Ontario. 

Winnipeg Manitoba. 

Kingston Ontario. 

Halifax Nova Scotia. 

London Ontario. 

Fredericton New Brunswick. 

The active militia numbers at present about 5,000 men, 
who drill only at schools of instruction or at regimental 
headquarters. The idea is that with a partially trained 
force of this kind there shall be an organisation which 
will allow of its expansion to 100,000 men should they 
be required for an emergency. 

The period of service in times of peace is three years 
or more. A steady increase is shown in the number of 
men trained in the militia of Canada. In 1895 19,000 
men and 1,125 horses were trained. In 1908-9 no less than 
47,000 officers and men with 8,500 horses went through a 
period of instruction. The reserve militia at present 
exists only in name, but it can be called up by the Gover- 
nor in Council at any time of emergency. There is in the 
Militia Act a provision as in England, that should a 
complete quota be required of men liable to serve, it can 
be provided by ballot ; so far this provision has not been 
necessary. 

245 

17— (2137) 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Naturally in the case of a half-trained force the most 
serious problem is the education and training of its 
officers. Officers of the militia are, as a rule, men of 
business, dependent for their livelihood upon their civilian 
occupation. It is impossible for such men to remain 
away for long from their business, and since Mahomet 
cannot go to the mountain the reverse process has 
been tried of bringing the schools to these officers at 
convenient points. The Royal Military College, estab- 
lished about thirty-five years ago for the training of 
young officers, was for many years something of a dis- 
appointment to Canadian military enthusiasts. That 
the education is excellent is proved by the fact that for 
many years past the college has been filled to its utmost 
capacity. A large number of graduates entered various 
professions, and particularly the engineering profession, 
and many others joined the Imperial army and proved the 
worth of their training. In recent years, however, many 
graduates have gone from the mihtary college to the 
permanent militia force, as was intended. 

A fact which must not be overlooked in the military 
education of Canada is the provision of the Strathcona 
Trust, founded by the High Commissioner of Canada. 
The object in view is twofold : 1. The improvement of the 
physical and intellectual capacities of the children while 
at school by a proper system of physical training, calcu- 
lated to improve their physical development, and at the 
same time to inculcate habits of orderliness, alertness, 
and prompt obedience. 2. The fostering of a spirit of 
patriotism in the boys, leading them to realise that the 
first duty of a free citizen is to be prepared to defend his 
country, to which end all boys should, as far, as possible, 
be given an opportunity of acquiring some acquaintance 
while at school with military drill and rifle-shooting. 

Before a province can participate in the benefits of 
the Trust it must pledge itself to include in tlie regular 

246 



THE STRATHCONA TRUST 

curriculum of its schools instruction in physical training 
for the children of both sexes. The provision as to 
military drill for boys has led to a certain amount of 
misapprehension of the object of the Trust ; but Lord 
Strathcona's object, far from being to use the Trust as a 
vehicle for introducing a system of compulsory military 
training, is, on the contrary, simply to inculcate a spirit of 
patriotism, which is a very different thing. For this 
reason the provinces accepting the benefits of the 
Strathcona Trust are not pledged to form cadet corps, 
but merely to encourage the formation of such corps. 
The militia department makes itself responsible for the 
instruction of the teachers, to enable them to become 
expert, under the same conditions as are already allowed 
to the officers of the active militia. 

Royal North- West Mounted Police 
From the year 1873 onwards there has been in existence 
a force of a military character operating in Western 
Canada, under the control of the Dominion Government, 
which has established for itself a reputation which is 
world wide. 

At the time the Hudson's Bay Company's Territory 
was taken over by the Government of Canada, the early 
settlers who went West required, it was thought, the 
protection that could only be afforded by a force of 
constabulary. Statutory power was granted to the 
Governor in Council under an Act passed in 1873 to 
constitute a Police Force in and for the North- West 
Territories. This Act provided that the number of the 
force should not exceed in the whole the number of 300 
men, a portion of whom were to be mounted, and that 
the duty of the force should be (1) " To perform all 
duties assigned in relation to the preservation of the 
peace, the prevention of crime, and of offences against 
the laws and Ordinances in force in the North-West 

247 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Territories ; (2) To attend upon any Judge, Stipendary 
Magistrate or Justice of the Peace, when required, and, 
subject to the Commissioner or Superintendent, all 
duties and services in relation thereto, which may, under 
this Act, or the laws or Ordinances in force in theNorth- 
West Territories, lawfully be performed by constables ; 
(3) To perform all duties which may be lawhilly performed 
by constables in relation to the escort and conveyance 
of convicts and other prisoners or lunatics, to or from 
any Courts, places of punishment or confinement, asylums 
or other places. 

The force was organised by Major-General Sir George 
Arthur French, who became its first Commissioner, and 
in (he following year commanded an expedition sent 
from the Red River to the Rocky Mountains by the 
Canadian Government. Subsequently the command was 
taken over by Lieutenant-Colonel A. G. Irvine, the 
Assistant Commissioner, who in turn was succeeded by 
Colonel L. W. Herchmer. The present Commissioner, 
Colonel A. B. Perry, was the first graduate of the Royal 
Military College, Kingston, Ontario, after its foundation, 
later becoming a Lieutenant in the Royal Engineers. 
On retiring from the Army he was appointed Inspector 
in the Police and was promoted Superintendent in 
recognition of his services with the force during the 
North-West Rebellion in 1885. The force is administered, 
under the supervision of the Prime Minister, by a Comp- 
troller at Ottawa, whose office forms one of the Depart- 
ments of the Government at Ottawa, and who ranks 
as a Deputy Minister. 

The Commanding Officer, having the title of Commis- 
sioner, has his headquarters at Regina. There are 
also two assistant commissioners, eleven superintendents, 
thirty-one inspectors, five surgeons and assistant- 
surgeons, eleven staff-sergeants, forty-six sergeants, 
sixty-four corporals, three hundred and seventy-two 

248 



THE MOUNTED POLICE 

constables and eighty-five special constables, making 
a total of six hundred and fifty-one. 

The various detachments into which the force is 
divided cover an enormous stretch of territory, including 
the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta, the Yukon 
Territory, and the districts of Mackenzie and K(;ewatin, 
which two latter form part of what are now known as the 
North-West Territories. One detachment in the Keewatin 
district is actually on the Arctic Ocean, no less than 2,500 
miles from headquarters, involving a period of two 
months for the journey. 

The main strengtli of the force is, however, stationed 
in the southern portion, to the south of the two provinces 
first named. 

Candidates for enlistment as constables must be British 
subjects between the ages of twenty-two and thirty, 
intelligent, active, able-bodied men of thoroughly sound 
constitution, sober and steady, and must produce certifi- 
cates of exemplary character from reliable persons. 
They must be able to read and write either the English or 
French language, have some knowledge of the care and 
management of horses, and be able to ride. The term 
of engagement is five years, but the Commanding Officer 
has repeatedly recommended that it be reduced to three. 
A recruit of less tiian three months' service may claim 
his discharge on payment of fifty dollars, but after that 
period it is only granted as a special privilege and on 
payment of three dollars per month of the unexpired term 
of service, with a minimum payment of fifty dfjiiars. 

The rates of pay are as follows : — 

Sergeants-Major and Staff-Sergeants $1.50 to $2.00 per day. 
Sergeants $1.25 

Corporals $1.10 ,, 

Constables, 9th year's service $1.00 

8th ,, „ 95c. 

7th ,, ,, 90c. 

249 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

per day. 



Constables, 


(itli 
5(h 
4tli 

liiid 
Isl 


yei 


irs ' 


service 


85c. 
80c. 
75c. 
70c. 
(S5c. 
(iOc. 



Extra pay is allowed lo a liinitecl number of blacksmiths, 
horseshoers, carpenters and other artisans. Members 
of the iorcc are snpphed with tree rations, free imiforms 
and necessaries on joining and periodical issues during 
service. The minimum height of recruits is 5 feet 8 inches, 
the minimum chest measurement 35 inches, and the 
maximum weight 175 pounds. Non-conmiissioned 
officers and constables on discharge, after completing 
twenty years' service, or, who have completed not less 
than fifteen years' service and are incapacitated, are 
entitled to receive a pension. The standard of require- 
ments is very high, and the medical examination of 
candidates a strict one. Unless intending recruits are 
convinced that they are thoroughly sound and lit for 
service it is unwise of them to incur the expense of 
preceeding to Regina, which is the only point at which 
enlistment takes place. 

The nature of the duties ptn-formed by the Royal 
North-West Mounted Police is most varied, and when it 
is realised that the annual number of convictions of 
various kinds within tht>ir jurisditlion during the past 
three years is almost G.OOO, it is obvious that they are 
kept fully employed. A list of general headings under 
which convictions were obtained, in itself indicates to 
a large extent the wide scope of the duties of the force : — 
offences against the person ; property ; public order ; 
religion and morals ; misleading justice ; corruption 
and disobedience ; Railway Act ; Customs Act ; Indian 
Act ; Animals' Contagious Diseases Act ; Fisheries Act ; 
Dominion Lands Act ; Election Act ; Rocky Mountain 

250 



VARIED DUTIES 

Park Regulations ; Militia Act ; Inland Revenue Act ; 
Penitentiary Act ; Lord's Day Act ; Manitoba Grain 
Act ; Trades Union Af:t ; Provincial Statutes and 
Ordinances. 

There are, besides, ilw.. du<ies of providing common 
gaol accommodation almost throughout the provinces oi 
Saskatchewan and Alberta and rendering important 
assistance to several of the Domini(jn Government 
Departments such as the Department of the Interior, 
the Customs Department, Department of Agriculture, 
and the Department of Indian Affairs. For the most 
part, however, the patrol work, the detection and sup- 
pression of crime and (jther duties ordinarily associated 
with a forc(; of the kind are Hut matt(-rs which particularly 
occupy the attention of the Police. 

Then; are, however, many duties of a different character 
which are performed, one of the most pleasant of which 
is that of providing guards of honour for distinguished 
visitors to the North-West, and His Majesty King George, 
Prince Fushimi of Japan, and many of those who have 
held the position of (jovernor-General, have spoken in 
iiighly complimentary terms of the smartness and 
efficiency of the force. On one occasif^n during Prince 
Fusliimi's trip through Canada in 1907, the programme 
which had been arranged for a certain day did not meet 
With his Highness' approval, and he set it aside to go 
fishing in a boat with a corporal belonging to the Bank- 
head detachment of the Police, The corporal was well 
provided with flies and hooks, and at th(i first cast the 
Prince drew out two fish on one hook which caused him 
to laugh heartily, for the first time (according to his 
staff) since leaving Quebec. 

Prior to the formation of the province of Saskatchewan 
and Alberta out of the enormous stretch of territory 
between Manitoba and the Rocky Mountains, the main- 
tenance of law and order in that section of Canada rested 

251 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

with the Dominion Government, and was delegated 
to the Royal North- West Mounted Police. When the 
new Provincial Governments were formed, it became 
their duty to take over the responsibility, but by an 
agreement arrived at in 1906 the two provinces arranged 
to contribute a portion of the cost of maintaining the 
force, the control to remain with the Dominion Govern- 
ment as hitherto. The arrangement has worked in a 
satisfactory way, and appears to have proved very 
advantageous from all points of view. 

Innumerable instances of strenuous duties admirably 
performed by members of the force could be given, but 
one or two will suffice. A sergeant immediately on his 
return from a northern patrol received a communication 
from an Indian living at Fort McKay on the Athabasca 
River, requesting him to come and take charge of his 
insane son who had become violent and dangerous. 
Although his train dogs were not in a fit condition to 
make another long journey, he hired others, and travelled 
from his northern post of Fort Chippewyan amid heavy 
snowstorms. Having provided the unfortunate lunatic 
with suitable clothing and prepared him for the journey, 
the sergeant journeyed from Fort McKay to Lac-la-Biche, 
and notwithstanding the absence of a trail and a heavy 
snowstorm, succeeded eventually in reaching Fort 
Saskatchewan, where he handed over his charge to the 
proper authorities. Mention was made that the trip was 
the most difficult he had ever undertaken, owing to very 
deep snow and inclement weather. In addition to these 
difficulties, the lunatic was so violent for the greater part 
of the journey that he had to be strapped to the sledge 
on which he was being conveyed. It can be readily 
imagined that the experience was an extremely terrible 
one for his conductor, yet the sergeant's formal report of 
the incident was made in the most matter-of-fact terms. 

In another similar case, where a constable stationed 

252 



A NOBLE RECORD 

at Fort Chippewyan had to conduct an insane prisoner to 
Fort Saskatchewan, he became violently insane himself 
as the result of the hardships of his trip and his anxiety 
for the safety of his charge. After a period of treatment 
and of special leave, he recovered and returned to duty. 

Another instance of heroic work performed by a member 
of the force is that in which Corporal D. B. Smith, who was 
stationed at Norway House to the north of Lake Winnipeg, 
aided the unfortunate inhabitants of that neighbourhood 
when a severe epidemic of diptheria and scarlet fever 
occurred there in 1904. This non-commissioned officer 
undertook to supply them with food, disinfect their 
houses, help to care for their sick, and buried the dead. 
Without his aid things would have undoubtedly gone 
badly with the afflicted settlement. 

The moral effect of such a force, thoroughly organised, 
splendidly disciplined, with all the power of the Dominion 
Government behind it, has from the very first been 
imdoubted, both by its influence in keeping down lawless 
tendencies, and in serving to exemplify to the home- 
steader and the new-comer in the West that his interests 
were being carefully safeguarded. 

The ordinary scope of the duties performed by the 
Mounted Police has been outlined above, but it remains 
to speak of the new phase of work which has been 
allotted to it in recent times. In 1903 the field of opera- 
tions was considerably widened, a detachment of five 
men under the command of Superintendent Moodie 
being selected to accompany a Government expedition 
to Hudson's Bay. Another expedition was despatched to 
the Arctic Ocean under the command of Superintendent 
Constantine, and one of the members (Sergeant Fitzgerald) 
estabhshed a detachment at Herschel Island, eighty 
miles north-west of the mouth of the Mackenzie River in 
the Arctic Ocean. The establishment of outposts of 
this character shows that a determination exists to 

253 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

enforce the law of the country at whatever cost or however 
remote the district. Besides the detachment working in 
the Arctic, there is another small force operating along 
the Western shores of Hudson's Bay. Yet another piece 
of pioneer work undertaken by the force, was the con- 
struction not long since of a pack trail from Fort St. John 
in British Columbia to the Yukon Territory through the 
Peace River district. 

The latest report of the Commanding Officer speaks 
of the many pressing applications which he is receiving 
from points all over the Western Provinces for the 
establishment of new detachments ; and points out that 
if he were to meet the demands made upon him, the 
present strength of the force which, as before stated, 
numbers 651 officers, non-commissioned officers and 
constables, would have to be doubled. He adds that 
the " development of the Western Provinces will go 
on even more rapidly than before, and the Police 
requirements must increase." 

At the time of the South African war, several of the 
officers, non-commissioned officers and men were granted 
leave to join the mounted regiments which went out from 
Canada, and the services they performed were of the 
utmost value. The nature of their duties in the Dominion 
naturally enabled them to cope with the work for which 
they were required, and their example was a valuable 
asset to regiments formed in a comparatively short space 
of time. 

The force has all along been largely recruited from 
young Englishmen, as the life does not, in the oppor- 
tunities at present offered by the rapidly expanding 
western country, appeal at all strongly to the Canadian. 

Canada's Navy 
The arrival of the Cruiser Niobe at Halifax, on the 
21st October, and the Rainbow at Esquimault on the 

254 



A CANADIAN NAVY 

7th November, marks a departure of the greatest 
consequence in the policy of Canada. Under the new 
British naval scheme brought into force a few years 
ago, the British squadron stationed on the Pacific coast 
of Canada was withdrawn ; since when, except for occa- 
sional visits, the Navy has been practically unrepresented 
on the Dominion seaboard. In 1908 and 1909 much 
interest was aroused in Great Britain, and in the self- 
governing Colonies, on the question of the naval supremacy 
of the Mother Country, and in consequence, in March of 
the latter year a resolution was passed in the Canadian 
House of Commons to the effect that that House would 
cordially approve of any necessary expenditure designed 
to promote the speedy organisation of a Canadian naval 
service, in co-operation with, and in close relation to 
the Imperial Navy. 

Opinions differed as to the form that this departure 
should take, some members advocating a money contribu- 
tion to the British Navy, while others held that Canada 
should, as far as possible, provide her own defence, and 
that it would not be wise for her navy to form part of 
that of Great Britain. 

An Imperial Defence Conference, at which Canada was 
represented, met in London in July, 1909, and it was 
then agreed that the Dominion should lay the foundation 
of her own fleet, and that a beginning should be made 
'with cruisers of the Bristol class, and destroyers of an 
improved river class. To give effect to this agreement, 
a Naval Defence Bill ]was introduced into the Canadian 
House of Commons in January, 1910, which provided 
for the organisation of a naval service, including a 
permanent force, a reserve force, and a volunteer force. 
It was stated that the early construction was contemplated 
of two cruisers of the Bristol class, three of the 
Boadicea class, and six destroyers, and for this purpose 
an appropriation for the current year of 3000,000 

255 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

dollars was taken. It was provided in the Act that, 
in case of emergency, the Government might, by an order 
in council, place the fleet at the disposal of His Majesty 
the King. The Government also decided to purchase 
at once, from the British Admiralty, two cruisers that 
could be used for fishery protection, and also for the 
purpose of training under British Naval Officers Cana- 
dians for the naval service. The cruisers Niobe and 
Rainbow were procured, the former to be stationed on 
the Atlantic and the latter on the Pacific coast. 

The scheme may now be said to be fairly under way. 
A new Department, the Naval Service Department, 
has been organised and staffed, the two training cruisers 
— ^which form the nucleus of the Canadian Navy — 
have reached the Dominion ; and a College for training 
officers for the fleet is in course of formation. So far, 
construction of the remaining cruisers and destroyers 
(which are to be built in Canada) has not been begun, 
and it can be readily understood that work of this kind, 
which is novel to the Dominion, requires careful con- 
sideration and preparation. But no doubt this will 
soon be taken in hand and brought to a satisfactory 
conclusion. 



256 



CHAPTER IV 

Banking and Currency in British North 
America 

The Banking system of Canada is of no mushroom 
growth. It has been built up with the development of 
the country, and has, in the main, kept pace with its 
progress. 

It may be said, generally, that all the joint -stock 
banks of the Dominion carry on business under a general 
banking law. Although a joint -stock bank cannot be 
started without a special charter, yet all such charters 
are subject to the provisions of a law dealing with such 
matters as the rights, powers and responsibilities of all 
concerned. This law is limited in its operation to ten 
years, and the whole question of banking and currency 
must come up for discussion in the Canadian Parliament 
at decennial periods. By the British North America 
Act, the subject of banking is placed under federal, and 
not provincial, jurisdiction. The Canadian banking 
system is one of which the citizens of the country may be 
justly proud, and there can be no doubt that a system 
has been built up which has proved, in every respect, 
to be thoroughly adapted to the country, and to its 
expanding circumstances. The banks have followed the 
progress of settlement, and have grown with the country 
until to-day there are thirty chartered banks rendering 
monthly statements to the Department of Finance. 
These banks have hundreds of branches all over the 
Dominion, and have an authorised capital of 156,266,666 
dollars paid up capital totalling nearly a hundred million 
dollars, and reserve funds amounting to nearly 80,000,000 
dollars. 

In the early days, for a very considerable time, the 

257 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Bank of Montreal and the Quebec Bank were the only 
institutions that carried on business in what was then 
known as Canada (comprising now the Provinces of 
Ontario and Quebec). The business then was but a 
small one, and it may be mentioned that the Bank of 
Montreal, at its initiation, had. a capital of 350,000 dollars 
only, and at the end of its first year, it laid by, as a reserve, 
the modest sum of 4,000 dollars. Now its capital is 
14,000,000 dollars— all paid up,— reserve 12,000,000 
dollars, and undivided profits are about 680,000 dollars. 

The first bank established in Canada was the Bank of 
Montreal, in 1817, followed the next year by the Bank of 
Quebec. In 1821 the banks were granted a charter which 
does not differ much in form from those of the present day. 
The three special forms of banking were performed from 
the first, viz., receiving deposits, issuing notes and 
discounting bills. There was, however, one clause out 
of the common in the original charter of the Bank of 
Montreal. It was that officers of the bank guilty of 
secreting, embezzhng or running away with bill, bond, 
obligation, money or effects, should, on conviction, be 
deemed guilty of felony, the penalty attached being 
death as a felon without benefit of clergy. Between 
1821 and 1836 many banks were established, among them 
being the Bank of British North America, organised 
by Scottish and English merchants, and incorporated 
by Royal Charter. 

In 1830 the Banking Act was amended, so that the total 
amount of notes of less sum than five dollars in circulation 
should not exceed one-fifth of the paid-up capital ; that 
no notes under the value of one dollar should be issued, 
and that all issues of less than five dollars might be 
limited or suppressed by the legislature. In 1850 an Act 
was passed which forbade the issue of notes by banks, 
other than those authorised by Act of Parliament or by 
Royal Charter. The tax on the circulation of the 

258 



BANKING ACT OF 1869 

banks was abolished, and in lieu of those a deposit 
with the Government of provincial debentures was 
required, and according to a plan fixed by the legislature. 
Bank statistics to be monthly forwarded to the Government 
were required in that year. • 

The first legislation in the Dominion dealing with 
banking, was introduced in the year of Confederation — 
1867 — but this Act did little more than continue for three 
years the charters of the incorporated banks then in 
existence. A measure was introduced by Sir John 
Rose in 1869 ; this was withdrawn, but, in the following 
year Sir Francis Hincks brought in an Act having many 
important features, the provisions of which have formed 
practically the foundation for most of the subsequent 
legislation on the subject. By this measure, it was 
provided that the banks should hold from 33 to 50 per 
cent, of their cash reserves in Dominion notes, and that 
the furnishing of monthly returns should be obligatory. 
It was enacted also that banks which were newly started 
should have a bona fide paid up capital of 200,000 dollars, 
and that the circulation should never exceed the paid-up 
capital. A subsequent Act, modifying and improving 
the last named measure, was brought forward by Sir 
Francis Hincks, who had, on this occasion, the benefit 
of the invaluable guidance of Mr. J. M. Courtney (then, 
and until 1906, Deputy Minister of Finance). This 
measure made a change in reference to the amount of 
capital, which was then fixed as it remains now, that 
the subscribed capital must be 500,000 dollars, with 
100,000 dollars paid up, when a new bank was established, 
and 100,000 dollars more to be paid up within two years 
of the time of its opening business. Sir Francis also 
introduced a Currency Bill. Prior to the passage of 
this measure, Nova Scotia had a different par value of 
£1 to Upper and Lower Canada value. He also intro- 
duced a " Dominion Notes Bill," which, although 

259 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

often amended, laid the foundation of a good deal of 
subsequent legislation regarding Dominion notes. 

The granting of charters to several banks between the 
years 1870-1880 led to a new Bank Act in 1880, which 
was introduced by Sir Leonard Tilley. This measure 
was, however, much on the lines of the previous Act, 
the only changes of note being that the Dominion notes 
to be held as reserves should not be less than 40 per cent., 
that the issue of four dollar notes be taken from the 
banks, that the privilege of issuing fives and multiples 
of fives be continued, and that notes have a preferential 
lien in order to give greater security. 

In 1890, an amendment to the Bank Act was intro- 
duced by the Hon. George E. Foster. This measure was 
of the first importance, and embodied several amendments 
and additions as regards previous legislation. For 
instance, the banks were required to furnish to the 
Department of Finance, yearly, a list of balances in 
respect of which no transactions had taken place during 
the five years prior to the date of such return, and of all 
dividends remaining unpaid for the same period. This 
return, which is published by the Government in the form 
of a blue-book, provides a means of enabling persons to 
obtain particulars of moneys belonging to them, of which 
they would otherwise have no knowledge. The monthly 
form of return furnished by Banks was also altered. 
Previously, this return was based upon the balance in 
the possession of the Bank on the last day of the month. 
The new form called for daily amounts of specie and 
Dominion notes to be shown, to ensure that, in no one 
period of the month, did the banks infringe the Act. 
Mr. Foster, in introducing this Act, called attention to 
hardships which had arisen in cases of suspension of 
banks, to the holders of bills living in remote parts of 
the country. He stated that, although in only one case, 
had the notes secured by the banks failed to be redeemed 

260 



UNIQUE LEGISLATION 

at their face value ultimately, yet it had happened that 
persons had suffered because, they were forced by cir- 
cumstances, and by reason of a general feeling of panic, 
to lose upon the notes they held. To meet this condition 
of affairs, the Act provided a fund should be formed by 
the banks, to be called the " banks' circulation redemp- 
tion fund." On the fund thus formed the Government 
proposed to pay interest at the rate of 3 per cent, per 
annum. This fund was to be used, upon suspension of 
a bank, and between the time of suspension and redemp- 
tion for the purpose of redeeming, if necessary, the notes 
of the bank, and it was held that the knowledge that 
such a fund existed would keep the notes at par. To 
ensure greater care in the formation of new banks, it 
was provided that, although the amount of capital stock 
was not to be increased, yet, before any bank undertook 
business in Canada, 250,000 dollars should be bona fide 
paid in and deposited in the hands of the Minister of 
Finance. This provision, it was urged, would prevent 
any bank going into operation in Canada without giving 
a good guarantee that it was prepared to do business on 
a solid foundation. 

In 1900 an amendment was introduced by the Hon. 
Mr. Fielding. By this it was provided that the Canadian 
Bankers' Association — which has a Dominion charter 
— should be incorporated in the Act, and duties were 
assigned to it in the case of the suspension of any bank. 
It was enacted that the Association should appoint 
competent persons to supervise the affairs of any such 
banks, and to have absolute supervision until they 
were removed from office, or until the bank resumed 
business, or a liquidator was duly appointed to wind 
up its business. The note issue of all banks, and all 
matters relating thereto, such as the cancellation of and 
the ordering of new supplies of notes, are watched over 
by periodical visits of the Secretary of the Association. 

261 

^8— (3137) 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

This legislation places the Association in a unique 
position, for in no other public Act has a private Associa- 
tion been brought in as part of the machinery of the 
Executive. The Minister of Finance said, in reference 
to this, that it was felt that as the banks were more or 
less partners as regards their note circulation, for the 
reason that they were responsible for, and all contributed 
to the circulation redemption fund, therefore they had a 
special interest in seeing that a bank which had suspended 
was conducted in the right way. This Act also provided 
that a bank which so desires may by a vote of two-thirds 
in value of all its shareholders, sell and dispose of all its 
assets to another bank, but that, if the assets happen 
to be very large, such as would require an extension of 
the capital of the purchasing bank, it is provided that 
the shareholders of that bank, also, should be consulted. 

An Act should have been introduced in 1910, but its 
consideration was postponed until 1911. This Act is 
necessary, for the reason that the existing charters expire 
in 1911, and need to be renewed. There has been some 
talk of important amendments to the Act, but how far 
this is founded on fact remains to be seen. 

The principal provisions of the Banking Act are as 
follows : — 

The capital stock of any bank shall be not less than 
500,000 dollars, in shares of 100 dollars each. 

500,000 dollars must be subscribed, and 250,000 dollars 
paid to the Minister of Finance, who is also Receiver- 
General, and a certificate of permission obtained from the 
Treasury Board before business can be commenced. 

Bank directors must hold capital stock as follows : 
On a paid up capital stock of 1,000,000 dollars or less, 
stock on which 3,000 dollars has been paid up ; on a paid 
up capital stock of over 1,000,000 dollars and not over 
3,000,000 dollars, stock on which 4,000 dollars has been 
paid up ; and on a paid up capital of over 3,000,000 dollars 

262 



NOTE CIRCULATION 

stock on which 5,000 dollars has been paid. A majority 
of the directors must be British subjects. 

No dividends or bonus exceeding 8 per cent, per annum 
can be paid by any bank, unless, after deducting all 
bad and doubtful debts, it h-as a reserve fund equal to at 
least 30 per cent, of its paid up capital. 

Every bank shall, subject to a penalty of 500 dollars 
for each violation, hold not less than 40 per cent, of its 
cash reserve in Dominion notes. 

The amount of notes of any bank in circulation at 
any time shall not exceed the amount of its unimpaired 
capital, subject to penalties varying with the amount 
of such excess. 

The payment of notes issued by any bank for circula- 
tion shall be the first charge on its assets in case of 
insolvency ; any amount due to the Dominion Government 
shall be the second charge, and any amount due to any 
provincial government shall be the third charge. 

Every bank shall pay to the Minister of Finance a 
sum equal to 5 per cent, on the average amount of its 
notes in circulation, such sum to be annually adjusted 
according to the average amount of circulation during 
the preceding twelve months. These amounts form a 
fund called " The Bank Circulation Redemption Fund," 
to be used when necessary, on the suspension of any 
bank, for the payment of the notes issued and in circula- 
tion, and interest. Payments from the fund are to be 
without regard to the amount contributed. 

All notes issued for circulation shall be payable at 
par throughout Canada. 

No bank may lend money on its own shares, or on 
those of any other bank, or upon mortgages of real 
estate, or on the security of any goods, wares or 
merchandise, except as collateral security. 

Any rate of interest may be charged and allowed, but 
not more than 7 per cent, can be recoverable. 

263 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Monthly returns signed by the chief accountant, the 
acting president and the manager, shall be made to the 
Minister of Finance within the first fifteen days of each 
month, subject to a penalty of fifty dollars for each day's 
delay, such returns to be made in the form provided in 
the act. Special returns may be required by the Govern- 
ment at any time. All Government cheques are payable 
at par. 

The following figures will show the progress made by 
the banks of Canada since 1868 : — 

In 1868 the paid up capital was 30,507,447 dollars, in 
1909 it had increased to 97,329,333 dollars. Notes in 
circulation increased from 9,350,646 dollars to 73,943,119 
dollars ; Totals on deposit from 33,653,594 dollars to 
783,298,880 dollars; Liabilities 45,144,854 dollars to 
882.598,577 dollars ; Land assets from 79,860,976 dollars 
to 1,067,007,534 dollars. 

Currency 
In the early days of the French regime, beaver skins 
served as a currency in Canada, and in 1669 wheat was 
declared a legal tender, at four francs for three French 
bushels. In 1774 moose skins were declared a legal tender, 
at the current market rate. It was customary for the 
troops to be paid in January of each year. Since money, 
for such purpose, was often late in arriving, the idea was 
conceived of issuing what was known as " card money " 
in bills of three values, four francs, forty sols, and fifteen 
sols. Issues of this card money were also made in 1691, 
1692, and at intervals thereafter until 1714, when, as 
the amount had risen to about two million livres, and the 
redemption had not been regular, they fell into discredit. 
A settlement was however arrived at, and the issue of 
card money was renewed in 1717, and continued until 
1759, when, by a decree of France, the payment of 
expenses for the colony was stopped. Various proposals 

264 



COINS CURRENT 

were made to the French Government for a just settle- 
ment, but many obstacles were thrown in the way. The 
holders eventually had to accept stock in the French 
funds, which had then fallen to 24 per cent, below par 
in the London market, which stock at first bore interest 
at four per cent., and afterwards at 4| per cent. After 
the final withdrawal of the card money, the colonists 
were compelled to use what specie they could get in 
order to make their payments. This, however, was 
frequently not to be had, and it is recorded that they 
had often to give promissory notes, which were circulated 
from hand to hand. 

One of the first Acts of the British after the acquisition 
of the Dominion, was to pass an Act in 1764, laying 
down values for such coins as were in circulation. This 
legislation was, however, repealed a few years later, the 
reason being that the coins were so clipped and worn that 
it was not possible to establish any relative value for 
them. In 1796 the Legislature of Upper Canada passed 
an Act for the better regulation of coins current in the 
province, and by this Act certain coins of various 
countries, including Portugal, America, Great Britain, 
Spain and France, were made legal tender at specified 
values. A similar Act had been previously passed by the 
Province of Lower Canada. In the year 1812, what were 
known as " Army Bills " were issued. This was the first 
authorised paper issue since Canada became a British 
possession. These bills were issued for the purpose of 
supplying money for the prosecution of the American war, 
and in August, 1812, the Legislature of Lower Canada 
passed an Act providing for the issue of bills to the value 
of 250,000 dollars. It was provided that they should be 
issued in denominations of 4.00 dollars and 25.00 dollars 
and upwards, and it was provided in the draft Bill that 
they should bear interest at the rate of fourpence per 
hundred pounds per diem. Various other Acts were 

265 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

passed authorising further issues. The amount stood 
finally at £3,441,993 in 1817, in which year all these 
Acts were repealed, and liquidation took place. These 
Army Bills, though none too favourably received at first, 
seem to have become popular, and to have supplied a 
long-felt want. 

In Lower Canada, in 1819, French gold and silver 
coins were admitted to unhmited legal tender. By this 
action, silver French coins were practically made the 
standard of value in Lower Canada, while, in Upper 
Canada, the Spanish dollar and its sub-divisions answered 
the same purpose. About this time another factor in 
the circulating medium made its appearance in the form 
of bank notes. The increase of these was constant and, 
in 1828, they had increased so in value that specie was 
a very uncommon sight. At this time there was a great 
quantity of American paper circulating in Canada. 

In 1834 the United States passed to a gold standard; 
which had the effect of draining Canada of gold. Owing 
to the presentation of a great number of notes by the 
agents of United States banks in 1837, the Canadian 
banks were so depleted that many of them (at least, the 
Lower Canadian banks) were forced to suspend specie 
payments. Parliament was summoned to allow the banks 
in Upper Canada to suspend specie payments. This 
motion, however, was successfully opposed by Sir Francis 
Bond Head, and the banks were carried through the 
crisis. 

About this time the issues of notes by private bankers 
and firms had reached alarming proportions ; so much 
so that, in 1837, an Act was passed by the Legislature of 
Upper Canada, limiting the issue of notes to authorised 
banks only, and a similar Act was passed by Lower 
Canada in 1839. On the two Canadas being united in 
1840, an Act was passed repeahng all past legislation 
dealing with currency, and creating as the new basis 

266 



A UNIFORM CURRENCY 

a pound currency. It was provided by a measure passed 
in 1851 that accounts might be rendered either in sterling, 
or in dollars and cents. This was, however, repealed in 
1857, and it was made compulsory to render accounts in 
dollars and cents. 

On December 10th, 1858, the first purely Canadian 
coins were struck at the Royal Mint in London ; they 
were of twenty, ten and five cent pieces in silver, and one 
cent in copper. The issue of these coins came as a great 
boon to the people of Canada, as, previously, the means 
for giving change were utterly inadequate. An Act 
respecting the currency was passed in 1868, which, 
conditionally on the United States adopting a basis 
agreed upon by an International Monetary Conference 
held in Paris in 1867 that the American five dollar gold 
coin should be made of the same value as the French 
gold coin of twenty-five francs, provided that the denomi- 
nation of money in the currency of Canada should be 
pounds, shillings, pence, dollars, cents and mills, the pound, 
shilling and penny to have the same proportionate value 
as in the currency of the United Kingdom, and the dollar 
to be one-fourth of a pound currency, the cent to be one- 
hundredth of a dollar, and the mill one-tenth of a cent. 

The equivalent of the pound currency was fixed and it 
was held that the British sovereign should be held to be 
equal to five dollars and four cents and one-third of a 
cent currency, and it was also provided that the half 
eagle of America should pass current and be a legal tender 
at the rate of five dollars. This measure did not come 
into effect, and in 1871 an Act was passed to ensure one 
uniform currency for the Dominion. This Act provided 
that the currency of Nova Scotia should be the same as 
the provinces of Ontario, Quebec and New Brunswick, 
and that the denomination of money in the currency of 
Canada should be dollars, cents and mills, the cent being 
one-hundredth part of a dollar, and the miU one-tenth 

267 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

of a cent ; that the British sovereign should pass 
current for four dollars, eighty-six cents and two-thirds 
of a cent, and the half sovereign for one-half the said sum. 
It was also laid down that the gold eagle of America, 
while its standard of fineness should be maintained, 
should pass current in Canada, and be a legal tender of 
ten dollars. 

A New Currency Act, repealing all previous legislation 
on the subject, was passed during the session of 1910. 
It provides that gold, silver and bronze coins, of specified 
weight and fineness, struck on the authority of the Crown 
for circulation in Canada, should be equal to and pass 
current for the following sums in the currency of the 
Dominion : — Twenty dollars, ten dollars, five dollars, two 
and one-half dollars, fifty cents, twenty-five cents, ten 
cents, five cents and one cent ; that gold coin should 
be a legal tender for any amount, silver coin for a payment 
of not more than ten dollars, and bronze for a payment 
of not more than twenty-five cents. The British sove- 
reign and half-sovereign were legalised as currency, as 
were the gold coins of the United States of America, the 
five dollar, ten dollar and twenty dollar coins being 
declared to be a legal tender and to pass current in Canada 
for similar amounts. The Governor in Council may, 
by proclamation, lix the rates at which any foreign 
gold coins may pass current and be a legal tender. He 
is also empowered, by proclamation, to determine the 
size of and design for any coin ; to determine the weight 
below which coins, when diminished in weight through 
various causes, are not to be deemed a legal tender, and 
to make regulations under which such coins may be 
redeemed. 

In the year 1901 a branch of the Royal Mint was 
established at Ottawa, and, at the present time, all 
coinages of the Dominion are manufactured at that 
establishment. 

268 



CHAPTER V 

Customs Revenue and Taxation 

A LARGE proportion of the current revenue of Canada 
is obtained from Customs taxation, as is shown by the 
fact that out of the total revenue on account of the 
Consohdated Fund for the year ended March 31st, 1909, 
of 85,000,000 dollars, the receipts from Customs Taxes 
amounted to over 47,000,000 dollars, which latter figure 
grew to 61,000,000 doUars in 1909-10. 

The power of raising money by any system of taxation 
was declared by the British North America Act of 1867 
to be within the legislative authority of the Parliament 
of Canada, and customs duties are accordingly levied 
under the authority of an Act of the Dominion entitled 
the Customs Tariff. The control and management of 
the collection of the duties of customs and all matters 
incident thereto, as well as of the officers and persons 
employed in the service, is vested in a Department of 
the Civil Service at Ottawa called the Department of 
Customs, presided over by a Minister of Customs who is 
a member of the Dominion Cabinet appointed by the 
Governor-General, by commission under the Great Seal. 
There is also a Commissioner of Customs acting as the 
deputy of the Minister who ranks with the Deputy 
Ministers and other chief officers in the Civil Service. 

A Board of Customs, consisting of the Commissioner, 
Customs Appraisers and such other duly qualified officers 
as may be appointed from time to time, sits at Ottawa 
for the purpose of deciding any points that may arise 
in connection with the administration of the Tariff. 

Under the control of the Department there are at all 
the leading ports of entry officers known as Collectors of 
Customs, with staffs of appraisers, clerks, landing waiters, 

269 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

examining officers and preventive officers varying in 
number with the requirements of the port. 

The Department is charged not only with the collection 
of customs revenues and the administration of customs 
laws, but with the maintenance of a preventive service, 
the administration of marine coasting, the registration 
of shipping and the compilation and publication of 
statistics relating to Trade and Navigation. 

The law provides that all goods imported into Canada, 
whether by sea, land, coastwise, or by inland navigation, 
whether dutiable or not, shall be brought in at a port 
of entry where a Customs House is established. There 
are about one hundred and forty customs ports compris- 
ing all the leading places to which merchandise is directed, 
and under the survey of these ports of entry there are 
a number of out-ports at many of which warehousing 
accommodation is provided on a larger or smaller scale 
in the same manner as at leading ports. In addition 
there are a limited number of preventive stations to 
which goods may also be manifested. 

The general administration of the law relating to 
customs is carried on under the provisions of the Customs 
Act, which provides for the methods by which goods are 
entered and warehoused, and valued for duty purposes, 
the revenue protected, and for the precedure to be adopted 
by the officers of the department in carrying out the law. 

Goods imported by sea or from any place out of Canada 
must, within three days after the arrival of the vessel, 
be entered inwards and landed. An invoice of such 
goods showing the place and date of purchase and the 
name or style of the firm or person from whom they 
were purchased, with other necessary particulars must 
be delivered to the customs officer. If the goods are 
not to be warehoused, the importer is required to pay 
all duties upon such goods whereupon the officer grants 
his warrant for unlading, and permit for their continuance 

270 



CUSTOMS REGULATIONS 

further into Canada if required. In default of such 
entry, the goods may be taken to a customs warehouse 
and kept there at the risk and charge of the owner. If 
unentered within a month from the date of their being 
warehoused and all charges, paid, the goods may be sold 
by public auction, the proceeds to be applied to the pay- 
ment of duties and charges, and any overplus paid to 
the owner of the goods or his agent. If the goods cannot 
be sold for a sum sufficient to pay the duties and charges 
they are destroyed. 

The importer may enter goods for exportation or for 
warehouse without payment of duty, but if they are 
unlawfully removed from the warehouse they may be 
seized until the payment of double duty has been made. 

An owner of warehoused goods may sort, pack, repack 
or make any arrangements respecting the goods ware- 
housed in order to ensure the preservation or lawful 
disposal of them, and may take moderate samples, 
without immediate payment of duty, but duties are 
payable in all cases on the quantity and the value of 
goods in the warehouse as stated on first entry or as 
originally warehoused. 

Warehoused goods may be removed in bond under 
authority of the customs officers from any warehousing 
port to any other warehousing port in Canada, or to any 
other warehouse in the same port. Goods may also be 
passed in bond from one port of entry to another port 
or in transit through Canada. Warehouse rent and all 
expenses connected with the unshipping, carrying and 
landing of goods, are borne by the importer, and ware- 
housed goods must be finally cleared for exportation 
or home consumption within two years from the date 
of the first entry, in default of which they may be sold 
for the payment of duty, warehouse rent, etc. 

Any customs duty overpaid or charged under an 
erroneous misinterpretation of the law, is not returnable 

271 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

after the lapse of three years from date of payment, unless 
application for repayment has been previously made. A 
refund of duty is not allowed after fourteen days from the 
time of entry for any misdescription of such goods by the 
importer. Invoices must be made out in the currency 
of the country from which the goods are imported, and 
contain a true statement of the value of the goods. 

The customs tariff at present in force is that passed 
by the Canadian Parliament in 1907. This is divided 
into three schedules : — 

(a) containing the list of goods subject to duty, and 
those which enter duty free ; 

{b) containing the list of goods subject to drawback 
for home consumption ; 

(c) a list of prohibited goods. 

The tariff of 1897, while providing a general tariff 
rate of duty on various classes of goods, extended a flat 
rate reduction of one-third in favour of goods of British 
origin and manufacture with a few exceptions, such as 
alcoholic liquors, liquid medicines, tobacco, cigars and 
cigarettes. 

In the present tariff this method has been departed 
from, and there is now a tariff column in which every 
item is set forth with the exact rate of duty. There is a 
second column containing an intermediate tariff con- 
taining rates of duty somewhat below the rates in the 
general tariff ; and thirdly, the general tariff. The 
intermediate tariff was adopted as an instrument to 
enable negotiations to be conducted from time to time 
with any country willing to extend particularly favourable 
conditions to Canada, thereby enabling the Dominion to 
find new and large markets for her products. 

The rates of customs duty under the British Prefer- 
ential Tariff apply to goods of British origin or manufac- 
ture of the following British countries when imported 
direct from any British country : the United Kingdom ; 

272 



BRITISH PREFERENTIAL TARIFF 

the British colony of Bermuda ; the British colonies 
commonly called the British West Indies, including the 
following : — the Bahamas, Jamaica, Turks and Caicos 
Islands ; the Leeward Islands (Antigua, St. Christopher- 
Nevis, Dominica, Montserrat, and the Virgin Islands) ; 
the Windward Islands (Grenada, St. Vincent and St. 
Lucia) ; Barbados ; Trinadad and Tobago ; British 
Guiana ; British India ; Ceylon ; Straits Settlements ; 
New Zealand ; Cape of Good Hope ; Natal ; Orange 
River Colony ; Transvaal ; Southern Rhodesia ; and 
any other British colony or possession admitted to the 
benefit of the British Preferential Tariff in Canada by 
Order in Council. 

Every manufactured article to be admitted under the 
British Preferential Tariff must be bona fide the manu- 
facture of a British country entitled to the benefits of 
the British Preferential Tariff, and a substantial portion 
of the value of the manufactured article must have 
been produced by labour in one or more of such countries. 

In order to obtain entry of goods under the British 
Preferential Tariff, an exporter must furnish a separate 
invoice therefor to the Customs authorities and the 
requisite certificates of origin must be written, printed 
or stamped on the front or back of the invoice. The 
certificate prescribed lays it down " that each manufac- 
tured article on the invoice in its present form ready 
for export to Canada has been finished by a substantial 
amount of labour in such country, and not less than 
one-fourth the cost of production of each article has been 
produced through the industry of one or more British 
countries." 

The British Preferential Tariff may be extended by 
Order in Council to any British country not specified 
above, or its benefit may be withdrawn by the same 
means from any British country (other than the United 
Kingdom). 

273 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

It is laid down that the rates of duty under the Inter- 
mediate Tariff shall apply to goods the produce or manu- 
facture of any British or Foreign country to which the 
benefits of such Intermediate Tariff shall have been 
extended, when imported direct from such foreign country 
or from a British country. 

The benefit of the Intermediate Tariff may be with- 
drawn by Order in Council from any countr}^ to which 
it has been extended, in which case (as also in the event 
of the withdrawal of the benefit of the British Preferential 
Tariff by the same means) the rates of customs duties 
set forth in the General Tariff would apply to the country 
affected. 

The General Tariff applies to all goods not entitled 
to admission under the Intermediate or under the British 
Preferential Tariff. 

Invoices of goods imported are required to be furnished 
in duplicate to the customs authorities. It is not 
necessary for these to be delivered to the carrier trans- 
porting the goods into Canada, but they may be forwarded 
by mail to the importer, or his agent, for use in making 
entry of the goods at the customs port of destination in 
Canada. A third copy should be supplied to the importer 
for his own use. 

The proper commercial designation of the goods must 
be set forth in all invoices as well as the marks and 
numbers on the packages. Every invoice must contain 
a sufficient and correct description of the goods, and in 
respect of goods sold by the exporter, must show in one 
column the actual price at which the articles have been 
sold to the importer, and in a separate column the fair 
market value of each article as sold for home consumption 
in the country of export. 

In fixing the value for duty of goods subject to ad 
valorem duties (" the fair market value thereof, when sold 
for home consumption, in the principal markets of the 

274 



FIXING VALUE FOR DUTY PURPOSES 

country whence and at the time when the same were 
exported directly to Canada "), the Customs Act lays 
it down that " Such market value shall be the fair 
market value of such goods, in the usual and ordinary 
commercial acceptation of the term, and as sold in the 
ordinary course of trade : Provided that a discount for 
cash, for duty purposes, shall not exceed two and one-half 
per cent., and shall not be allowed unless it has been 
actually allowed and deducted by the exporter on the 
invoice to the importer." 

The officers whose duty it is to appraise the value of 
imported goods according to the true intent and meaning 
of the law must, by all reasonable ways in their power, 
ascertain, estimate and appraise the true and fair market 
value of the goods at the time of exportation in the 
principal markets of the country from which they are 
exported. Information is regularly supplied to them 
by the authorities to enable them to secure proper valua- 
tion of such goods. The customs department adopts all 
possible means of becoming acquainted with the fair 
market value of goods when sold for home consumption 
in the countries of export. 

To prevent undervaluation of imported goods of a 
class or kind made or produced in Canada, the Customs 
Tariff of 1907 contained the provision that " if the export 
or actual selling price to an importer in Canada is less 
than the fair market value of the same article when sold 
for home consumption in the usual and ordinary course 
in the country whence exported to Canada, at the time 
of its exportation to Canada, there shall, in addition to 
the duties otherwise established, be levied, collected and 
paid on such article, on its importation into Canada, a 
special duty (or dumping duty) equal to the difference 
between the said selling price of the article for export 
and the said fair market value thereof for home consump- 
tion ; and such special duty (or dumping duty) shall be 

275 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

levied, collected and paid on such article, although it 
is not otherwise dutiable. 

Provided also that the following goods shall be exempt 
from such special duty, viz. : — 

(a) goods whereon the duties otherwise estabhshed are 

equal to fifty per cent, ad valorem ; 

(b) goods of a class subject to excise duty in Canada ; 

(c) sugar refined in the United Kingdom ; 

(d) binder twine or twine for harvest binders manu- 

factured from New Zealand hemp, istle or tampico 

fibre, sisal grass or sunn, or a mixture of any two 

of them, of single ply and measuring not exceeding 

six hundred feet to the pound. 

Provided further that excise duties shall be disregarded 

in estimating the market value of goods for the purposes 

of special duty when the goods are entitled to entry under 

the British Preferential Tariff. 

The Minister of Customs is empowered to make regula- 
tions for carrying out the provisions of this section of 
the Act, and such regulations may provide for the tem- 
porary exemption from special duty of any article or 
class of articles, when it is established to the satisfaction 
of the Minister that such articles are not made or sold 
in Canada in substantial quantities and offered for sale 
to all purchasers on equal terms, under like conditions, 
having regard to custom and usage of trade. They 
may also provide for the exemption from special duty 
any article when the difference between the fair market 
value and the selling price thereof to the importer amounts 
only to a small percentage of its fair market value. 

The Customs Tariff provides for the imposition of a 
surtax of one-third of the duty specified in the General 
Tariff on articles which are the produce or manufacture 
of any foreign country which treats imports from Canada 
less favourably than those from other countries. This 
surtax was applied to German goods from November, 

276 



FRANCO-CANADIAN CONVENTION 

1906, to the 1st of March, 1910, when it was suspended 
and such goods became subject to the duties of the 
General Tariff. 

On February 1st, 1910, a Convention respecting the 
commercial relations between Canada and France came 
into force. This Convention, which was signed on 
September 19th, 1907, and the Supplementary Convention 
of January 23rd, 1909, terminated the Agreement of 
February 6th, 1893, which had formerly been in opera- 
tion. It provided for the apphcation of the Intermediate 
Tariff to a number of natural and manufactured products 
enumerated in a Schedule (B) to the Convention, orig- 
inating in France, Algeria, the French colonies and 
possessions and the territories of the Protectorate of 
Indo-China, imported into Canada in the manner provided 
in the Convention. There is a second Schedule (C) of 
such natural and manufactured products originating and 
imported in the same manner in which special rates of 
duties are set opposite to each item. 

The advantages granted in the Convention extend to 
the United Kingdom and the several British Colonies 
and possessions with respect to their commerce with 
Canada, and any advantage which the United Kingdom 
and British colonies may enjoy under the British Prefer- 
ential Tariff is not diminished by anything contained in 
the Convention. 

The following countries accorded Most Favoured Nation 
Treatment in Tariff matters by Canada are also granted 
the benefit of the Convention : — Argentine Republic, 
Austria-Hungary, Bolivia, Columbia, Denmark, Japan, 
Norway, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Venezuela. 

Dutiable goods serving as patterns or samples from 
any British country or from any country entitled in 
Canada to the advantages of the Franco-Canadian Con- 
vention of 1907, are subject to refund of duty on exporta- 
tion from Canada, provided the goods be (a) bona fide 

277 

19— (2137) 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

samples or patterns, (b) marked by customs officer at the 
time of entry, (c) identified by a customs officer on 
exportation, and {d) be exported within twelve months 
from the time of entry. 

By an Order-in-Council dated June 10th, 1910, the 
benefit of the Intermediate Tariff was extended to certain 
Schedules of goods, the produce or manufacture of 
Belgium, the Netherlands and Italy. Power to extend 
the benefits of the Intermediate Tariff, in whole or in 
part in this manner is vested in the Governor in Council 
in consideration of satisfactory benefits, with the proviso 
that the goods entitled to enter at the lower rates of duty 
must be imported direct from such foreign countries 
or from a British country. 

Among other articles in the Tariff which are declared 
to be free of duty the following are included : — 

(1) Articles for the use of the Governor-General. 

(2) Arms, military stores, munitions of war, and other 
articles, the property of the Imperial Government, and to 
remain the property of such Government. 

(3) Settlers' Effects, viz., wearing apparel, books, 
usual and reasonable household furniture and other 
household effects ; instruments and tools of trade, occupa- 
tion or employment, guns, musical instruments, domestic 
sewing machines, typewriters, bicycles, carts, wagons, 
and other highway vehicles, agricultural implements and 
live stock for the farm (not including live stock or articles 
for sale or for use as a contractor's outfit, nor vehicles nor 
implements moved by mechanical power, nor machinery 
for use in any manufacturing establishment) provided 
that all the foregoing have been actually owned by the 
settler for at least six months before his removal to 
Canada, and subject to regulations prescribed by the 
Minister of Customs ; and further, that any dutiable 
article entered as " Settlers' Effects " may not be so 
entered unless brought by the settler on his first arrival, 

278 



EXEMPTIONS FROM DUTY 

and shall not be sold or otherwise disposed of without 
payment of duty until after twelve months' actual use 
in Canada. 

(4) Articles consigned direct to officers and men of 
His Majesty's Imperial Navy, for their own personal 
use or consumption on board their own ships. 

(5) Articles the growth, produce, or manufacture of 
Canada, returned, under certain conditions, to the 
exporter thereof after having been exported without 
having been advanced in value or improved in condition 
by any process of manufacture or other means. 

(6) Articles brought into Canada temporarily and for 
a period not exceeding three months, for the purpose of 
exhibition or of competition for prizes offered by any 
agricultural or other association, provided that full duty 
is payable in case of sale or if not re-exported within the 
specified time. 

(7) Articles for the personal or official use of Consuls- 
General who are natives or citizens of the country they 
represent, and who are not otherwise engaged in any 
business or profession. 

(8) Articles of Canadian manufacture returned for 
repairs, provided they are identified to the satisfaction 
of the Collector of Customs, and that a sufficient bond for 
double the amount of duty is delivered to the Collector 
as security for their exportation within six months of 
entry. 

The baggage of travellers entering Canada — wearing 
apparel, articles of personal adornment, toilet articles and 
similar personal effects may be passed free, without 
entry at customs, but this provision only includes such 
articles as actually accompany, and are in the use of 
such travellers for the immediate purpose of their 
journey and their present comfort and convenience, and 
is, of course, not intended to apply to merchandise or 
articles intended for other persons or for sale. 

279 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Tourists and sportsmen visiting Canada for a limited 
space of time, for health or pleasure may take with them 
such guns, canoes, tents, cooking utensils, camp equipment, 
musical instruments, kodaks, etc., as they require for 
their own use upon reporting the articles to the customs 
at the port of entry and depositing a sum of money equal 
to the duty. The tourist is required to furnish an invoice 
of his outfit in duphcate, one copy of which, signed by 
the customs officer and marked with the amount depos- 
ited, he retains. The money thus deposited may be 
refunded if the articles are exported at any customs port 
from which the tourist may leave within six months 
from the time of his entry. 



280 



CHAPTER VI 

Education 

By the provisions of the British North America Act 
the conduct of Education was left under tlie control of 
the provinces. That being so, there is necessarily a 
slight difference in the various systems followed, but 
taking it broadly the system pervading Canada is based 
on the principle of free education, out of funds supplied 
by government grants and local taxation. 

Some provinces make education compulsory. In 
Ontario, for example, children are obliged to attend 
school between the ages of eight and fourteen, in Nova 
Scotia children between the ages of seven and twelve are 
obliged to attend, but only for 120 days in the year. 
British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, and Quebec 
have no compulsory law. A good example of uniformity 
of system is that of the province of Ontario. In this 
province all public schools and high schools are in the 
hands of professional teachers, examined, trained and 
selected by the provincial government ; there is a common 
matriculation examination for admission to all the 
universities of the province, and the educational ladder 
is graded in a most excellent fashion. 

Beginning at the lowest class there is the kindergarten 
school, above which there are the pubhc and separate 
schools, the latter being for the Roman Catholic or the 
Protestant minority as the case may be. The next 
stage in the educational ladder is the high school ; and 
lastly, the Provincial University. Each of these is 
independent, but all are under one central control, 
presided over by a Minister of Education, the object in 
view being to provide, for children from the age of four 

281 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

to young people of twenty-two, a complete and well 
grounded scheme of education. The kindergarten school 
takes children of four or five years of age, the public 
school receives them at six, the high school at fourteen 
or fifteen, and the University at eighteen. 

In a country like Canada where class distinctions do 
not prevail to any appreciable extent the poor but clever 
boy has precisely the same opportunity of improvement 
as the rich clever boy, and the rich brainless boy finds 
his own level with the other dullards of the school. 

The schools of Ontario are governed by Boards of 
Trustees, High School Boards, Public School Boards 
and Separate School Boards. High School Boards are 
appointed by the local Municipal Council ; the Pubhc 
Schools and the Separate School Boards are elected by 
the ratepayers, the Public School supporters voting for 
the former and the Separate School supporters for the 
latter. Separate schools exist only in Quebec, Ontario 
and the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta. In 
Quebec naturally the Public School is for the Roman 
Catholic majority, and in the other two provinces for 
the Protestant majority with a separate school for the 
Roman Catholic minority in the latter, and for the 
Protestants in the former case. Until a few years ago 
Manitoba also had a series of separate schools for Roman 
Cathohcs, but after a long internecine fight they were 
abolished, and the children are now taught side by side 
in the public schools and religious instruction is given 
after the regular school hours by their own priests. 

As far as expenditure goes, education receives a 
generous consideration from the provincial governments. 
The governments of the various provinces pay grants to 
public schools ranging from 9% to 39% of their total 
revenues. These figures, though perfectly accurate are 
slightly misleading, since the 39% which a few years 
ago was true of Prince Edward Island does not indicate 

282 



A DEARTH OF TEACHERS 

any more generous support of schools tlian the 9% of 
another province, but only that the schools in the Island 
province are supported chiefly from the provincial 
treasury rather than by local taxation. The amount 
of money spent is not the only evidence of the relative 
importance of education. In round figures it may be 
said that a million and a quarter children in Canada 
attend school every day, and that over 30,000 teachers 
are employed. 

Of recent years the governments have been realising 
more and more fully the value of education. The great 
difficulty in Canada, (as in England, it must be confessed) 
with regard to expenditure on education, is not the want 
of money, but the want of appreciation on the part of 
the people as to the value of education. Taxation at all 
times is vexatious, and when the results are not imme- 
diately apparent it is the ratepayer's privilege to grumble, 
and he does so with energy. 

Another of the specific hindrances to the advantages 
of education come from the difficulty of obtaining the 
right sort of candidates as teachers. It is the same 
story as one finds in England when the teacher is under- 
paid and under appreciated, and ambitious young men 
and young women, unless they enter the profession from 
pure disinterestedness, are repelled by the lack of prospect 
in the profession. In Quebec, for example, the salaries 
of men teachers are in some cases as low as 112 dollars 
a year, and of women in some cases less than 100 dollars. 

Before leaving the question of underpayment of 
teachers a word must be said as to the recent movement 
for the adoption of district schools. In the sparsely 
populated districts of the United States an admirable 
plan has been adopted of combining a number of weak 
local schools into one good district school in a central 
locality. It is thus possible to provide a fuller education 
for the children, to engage well-qualified teachers, and to 

283 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

increase in many other ways the value of the education 
given. The first Canadian school of this kind, embodying 
principles of consohdation was opened in Middleton, 
Nova Scotia, in 1903. 



Rural Education 

In dealing with a country like Canada, the educationist 
must always keep before him the fact that the vast 
majority of children in rural schools will be employed 
on the Land. It is, therefore, of the first importance to 
instil into their minds as early as possible in the school 
career a love of the soil and a knowledge of the principles 
which underlie successful agriculture. The rural school, 
therefore, must be the basis of all agricultural education. 

In Canada, as in the older countries, it was unfortu- 
nately the case that the curriculum of the rural school was 
modelled upon that of the town school. There is little 
excuse for the methods of the town school ; transplant 
those methods to the country and they are ridiculous. 
To combat these old ideas Canada's necessity found the 
men in Sir Wilham Macdonald and Dr. J. W. Robertson. 
Sir William Macdonald was bom in Prince Edward 
Island, and left home at an early age, and for some 
time was employed at New York. Later, turning his 
face to his native country, he settled in Montreal, and 
became interested in the tobacco manufacture just at 
the time when the existing conditions in the United States 
were favourable to his schemes. At this time he laid 
the foundations of the successful business which later 
on brought him a great fortune. 

The moving principle of Sir William Macdonald's life 
was a deep love of his native land, and the will to forward 
her interests in every possible way where money could 
be of use. Amongst other things he observed that 
Canada needed for her future development a band of 

284 



SIR WILLIAM MACDONALD 

trained engineers, and he forthwith provided the McGill 
University with a fully-equipped engineering building. 
This munificent gift was followed by the gift of a Physics 
building and a Chemistry building with an endowment 
for maintaining them. Sir William Macdonald was the 
Director of a great bank of Montreal whose policy has 
been to establish branch banks in prosperous farming 
communities for the purpose of receiving deposits. It 
was noticed that in the communities where creameries 
were located the bank deposits increased very markedly. 
Further inquiry into the success of these creameries 
at Prince Edward Island drew his attention to the fact 
that it was largely the work of one man. This man was 
James W. Robertson. In 1898 these two men began 
to work together : Professor James Robertson providing 
the ideas and Sir William Macdonald the money, and 
both the enthusiasm, without which no great scheme 
can prevail. 

A few words about Dr. Robertson's career may not be 
out of place here. Born in Dunlop, in the county of 
Ayr, he emigrated with his father to a farm near London, 
Ontario, when he was eighteen years of age. He soon 
gained more than a local reputation and later on gave 
up a business career to undertake the professorship 
of dairy farming at the noted college of Guelph. For 
four years he retained his professorship at Guelph, and 
for the last two years of his term he was retained as 
non-resident lecturer to Cornell. At the end of 1890, 
he was appointed Commissioner of Dairying to the 
Dominion. 

Previous to 1900 many half-hearted attempts had 
been made to improve the usefulness of rural schools 
by introducing school gardens and out-door study. 
They had been made without plan, and were backed by 
no great driving force until in 1899 Dr. Robertson, in 
the course of his work was led to wonder whether the 

285 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

farmer could be induced to take a more scientific interest 
in the selection of seed. He began modestly from his 
private purse with an offer of 100 dollars in prizes to 
Canadian boys and girls who would send him the largest 
heads from the finest ears of wheat and oats taken from 
their fathers' fields. The response was so enormously 
encouraging that he went to Sir William Macdonald with 
his scheme and his hopes, with the result that Sir William 
offered 10,000 dollars in prizes to boys and girls who 
would select the best heads of cereals and from them 
grow seed of their own. By 1903 the crop of spring 
wheat sown in this fashion was 28 % heavier than that of 
1900 from unselected seed. In oats the increase was 
27%. 

It will be understood that with magnificent prizes 
of this kind the children were not the only ones interested 
in the subject, although the figures mentioned referred 
to seed-gro"wn plots operated by boys and girls under 
eighteen years of age ; but their parents had been watch- 
ing with keen interest the progress of the competitions, 
and this led to the Canadian Seed-Growers' Associa- 
tion, organised for the purpose of improving the crops 
of Canada. In 1906 it was estimated that these competi- 
tions were responsible for an increase in Canadian crops 
to an extent of half-a-million dollars. What is more 
to the point of this chapter, it also proved that children 
could easily be interested in agriculture. 

Manual training was the next step in the history of this 
movement. Sir William Macdonald founded through- 
out Canada twenty-one manual training centres, attended 
by 7,000 children, and costing 3,600 dollars a month for 
teachers' salaries during the three years. The arrange- 
ment was, that at the end of the three-years' probation, 
the local authorities were free to continue the schools 
if they pleased. In every case the schools were taken 
over by the local authorities and additions made to 

286 



THE VALUE OF MANUAL TRAINING 

them. In Ontario, for example, the three Macdonald 
centres have grown to forty, in Nova Scotia more than 
twenty school centres have been built, and are being 
run by local funds. 

Having set these training centres firmly upon their feet 
the next important step was to introduce into rural 
schools some form of manual training, and to make 
manual training effective it was desirable that Nature 
study, elementary biology, and elementary agriculture 
should become part of the school course. School gardens 
were provided to each five schools in each of the five 
provinces. Each group of five has a trained instructor 
who devotes one day a week to each school. His instruc- 
tion extends both to children and to their teachers. 
The most useful lessons have been learned, the advantage 
of using selected seed, the desirability of the rotation 
of crops, and the steps to be taken to protect the crops 
from disease. At the school garden at Prince Edward 
Island, for example, the children reaped 32 per cent, more 
wheat from a crop sown with selected seed than from 
one sown with unselected seed. In most gardens, too, 
plots side by side were planted with potatoes, one being 
sprayed with Bordeaux mixture to keep away bUght, 
and the other treated in exactly the same fashion except 
for the use of the Bordeaux mixture. The increase varied 
between 41 % and 111 % in favour of the potatoes which 
had been sprayed. 

The effect of these schools upon the children was shown 
by the examination which took place at Ontario in 1906. 
In Carleton Co., of the candidates from schools without 
gardens 49 % passed, and from the five schools with 
gardens 71 % passed. On all hands there was a consensus 
of opinion that so far from manual training interfering 
with book work, its effect was beneficial, thus vindicating 
the views of those educationists in England who had 
been striving in this direction for many years. Yet, in 

287 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

spite of all that could be done for it in the way of private 
or public encouragement the rural school in the scattered 
district must necessarily be, in the nature of things, 
somewhat inefficient, and to overcome this inherent fault 
Sir William Macdonald tried the effect of consolidating 
a number of rural schools into one large school and trans- 
porting the children from quite considerable distances to 
the central school. Four consolidated schools were first 
founded in Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and 
Prince Edward Island, with classes in manual training, 
household sciences, and nature study. In three years 
the cost of these schools was 180,000 dollars, and so 
evident was the improvement in the teaching gained and 
in the results obtained that now the consolidated school 
is rapidly taking the place of the small country school. 
Consolidation allows a certain amount of specialising on 
the part of the teachers. It allows the inclusion of special 
subjects such as manual training and agriculture. It 
allows of better pay and better prospects for the teachers, 
and it raises the whole system of education at once to 
a higher plane. In actual practice it has increased the 
daily attendance from 50% to 100%. 

The Macdonald Institutes 
With the organisation of these manual training depart- 
ments in rural schools came the demand for well-trained 
teachers to supervise them, and this was met by Sir 
William Macdonald 's generous foundation of two large 
buildings at the Ontario agricultural college at Guelph 
for the residence and the training of teachers. There 
are three departments in the institution. 1. The depart- 
ment of home economics which aims at teaching the 
vocation of home-making in a scientific fashion, and 
includes such subjects as physiology, cooking, sanitation, 
etc. Amongst its more practical subjects may be men- 
tioned phycology, — the study of seaweeds — and among 

288 



THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 

the theoretical, child study. The courses range from a 
three months' course in domestic science to a two years' 
housekeepers' course, or a normal course of domestic 
science for which diplomas are given. 

The department of manual training includes instruction 
for teachers in that subject. The department of nature 
study trains teachers in the science of observation and 
in the best methods of bringing to the child mind that 
familiarity with the common things of nature which 
means so much to the rural dweller. 

A short course of four weeks in the summer, when 
taken four successive years, qualifies the student for a 
rural science certificate. A two years' course qualifies 
for instructor in elementary agriculture and school 
gardens. The Macdonald Hall in connection with this, 
consists of a home for women students, capable of 
accommodating 110, who are charged for board and 
instruction $3.50 a week. Students who are not over- 
burdened with this world's goods may partly defray 
the cost of their study in science by serving for 
four months as waitresses, at the same time receiving 
their board and lodging and the privileges of a full-paying 
student. 

Returning after this excursion into the training of 
teachers to our main theme of the training of children, 
the next step on the educational ladder is the agricultural 
college. Naturally only a few of the students of the 
rural schools will ever reach the agricultural college ; 
those who do, will be the pick of the elementary schools, 
and will have had a more or less thorough training in 
elementary nature study and manual training. The 
first provincial government to provide agricultural educa- 
tion for dwellers in its borders was Ontario. The Ontario 
agricultural college at Guelph was established in 1874 
with the twofold object of training young men in the 
science and art of farming and of conducting experiments. 

289 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

There has been a steady increase of students ever since 
the college was started, and in 1898 they numbered 920, 
and they now number about 1,000. 

The volume of young men passing through an educa- 
tional institution of this kind cannot fail to have a great 
effect upon the agricultural methods of the community, 
and it is a notable fact that in the last twenty years 
the amount produced by the land of Ontario has practi- 
cally doubled and that without a corresponding increase 
in the acreage under cultivation. A farm of 400 or 500 
acres is attached to the college, and the buildings and 
appointments are of the most complete character. 
Before admission to the college a student must produce 
proof of having spent at least one year at work upon a 
farm or of having a working knowledge of such ordinary 
farming operations as the care of horses, ploughing, and 
other ordinary operations connected with farming. He 
must, in addition, produce satisfactory evidence that he 
intends to follow either agriculture, horticulture, dairying, 
or some practical work connected with these pursuits 
as a means of livelihood. The greatest stress is laid 
upon this previous experience of farm life, and the aim 
of the school is not so much to teach a young man how 
to become a farmer as to teach the young farmer how to 
become a successful farmer. There are various courses 
of study, ranging from a stock and seed judging course of 
two weeks, a poultry course of four weeks, and a two 
years' course in agriculture leading to the Associate 
Diploma, and a four years' course leading to the degree 
of B.S. of Agriculture at Toronto University. The cost 
of the two years' associate courses ranges from 75 dollars 
to 100 dollars a year for a resident who works regularly 
in the outside departments and receives pay for doing so, 
and 100 dollars to 150 dollars a year for a non-resident. 

The Field and Animal Husbandry departments of the 
college are special sections. The former has 50 acres of 

290 



GUELPH AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 

land devoted entirely to experimental work, and students 
spend a good deal of their time on these fields observing 
the results of the experimental crops. 

The animal husbandry department is also of the 
greatest importance, and • specimens of fifteen or more 
breeds of horses, sheep and pigs are kept. So thorough 
has been the teaching of the college, that the trophy 
offered to teams of students from agricultural colleges 
has been won for two years at Chicago by the Guelph 
team. 

Almost ever since its inception the college has been 
carrying on the most valuable experimental and research 
work in the laboratories and in the open air. Professor 
Zavitz, the chief of this department, has a world-wide 
reputation for his work on the improvement of farm 
crops, and more than 30,000 people come to the college 
every season to view the experimental field and growing 
crops. The most extraordinary care is taken in the 
selection of seed and the threshing of the grain, and no 
results are published until the experiment has been 
carried on for five years. The introduction of improved 
varieties of crops, the prevention of crop diseases and 
the great advances in the dairy industry which Ontario 
has been able to show in the last few years, are largely due 
to the results achieved by these experimental departments. 

In connection with the work of the Guelph College is 
the experimental union which includes several thousand 
farmers. It need hardly be said that this conducting 
of field trials of manures, methods of cultivating of 
forage and grain crops has an enormous influence on the 
trend of public opinion regarding field-work. By 
bringing the combined experience of its thousands of 
members within the reach of other farmers it has been 
of inestimable benefit to the province. 

Both Nova Scotia and Manitoba possess colleges of 
agriculture on a smaller scale, but with the same objects 

291 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

in view as the Ontario College. That of Nova Scotia 
is non-residential, and is free to all. The courses are 
comparatively short, the longest being that which leads 
to the associate diploma which is obtainable in two years. 
Should a diploma student desire to go further he is 
received by other agricultural colleges as a " third-year 
man," and can proceed to the degree of B.Sc, after 
leaving Truro College. A great point is made at Truro 
College of the live-stock department which devotes itself 
to improving the admittedly inferior stock of the province. 
Connected with the college is a farm of 200 acres, an 
interesting part of which is the marsh land, of a kind 
very generally found in Nova Scotia. It is an admirable 
example of what can be done with very difficult land, 
and should tend to improve the not entirely satisfactory 
methods employed by the average farmer. 

The Manitoba College at Winnipeg, although it was 
formed only five years ago, is capable of accommodating 
250 to 300 students. The fees and cost of living are 
much the same as at Ontario, being round about 100 
dollars for residence, books and tuition during the winter 
months from October to March. The province of Quebec 
had no agricultural college, and to the assistance of this 
province came Sir William Macdonald with the princely 
gift of the Macdonald College of St. Anne de Bellevue, 
whose aim it was to help the overflowing population of 
Quebec to a better knowledge of their occupations, 
to increase their prosperity, and to re-direct the practices 
and ideas of country life. The college is situated in a 
beautiful position overlooking the Ottawa river some 
twenty miles to the west of Montreal. The 560 acres 
in its possession are divided into three parts, consisting 
of the Campus, with experimental plots extending to 74 
acres, a small cultures farm for cereals, husbandry plots, 
poultry-keeping, and horticulture, and the live-stock and 
grain farm of 387 acres. The fittings and apparatus of 

292 



HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE 

the buildings, and indeed all the appointments are of the 
most astonishingly complete description, and could only 
have been supplied by private benevolence. There are 
three schools in the college: 1, the school for teachers; 
2, the school of agriculture ; and 3, the school of household 
science for women. In the first two schools the course 
is free to Canadians, and in the school of household 
science there is a nominal fee of 35 dollars per session, 
residents occupying a double room with single beds pay 
3 dollars 25 cents a week for board and lodging, and the 
courses of instruction are on precisely the same lines as 
those we have already fully described in the Ontario 
college. 

It is a special advantage that the school for teachers 
and the school for household science are rim side by side 
with the school for agriculture, since both teachers and 
housewives if they are to be successful in Canada must 
be in the closest touch with agricultural problems. Some 
idea of the size of the coUege may be gathered from the 
fact that the floor space covers 15^ acres, and that the 
perimeter of the buildings is over a mile and a half, and 
the cubicular contents of the buildings is over 4,000,000 
cubic feet. 

The following is a list of the courses at the Manitoba 
College : — 

1. Short course in stock and seed judging and in 
poultry-raising, fruit and vegetable growing. These 
courses give practical instruction to practical men and 
women. 

2. Two-year course in agriculture. This course gives 
training in the several branches of agriculture to the 
boy who intends to remain on the farm. 

3. Four-year course in agriculture, a course leading 
to the degree of B.S.A., given by the McGill University. 
A thorough and scientific course of training in animal 
husbandry, cereal husbandry, horticulture, etc. 

293 

20— (3137) 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

4. A three months' course in household science which 
provides training in practical work in all branches 
connected with the home. 

5. One-year home-maker's course in household science. 

6. Two years' home-maker's course in household 
science. Courses 5 and 6 are planned to give the student 
a good foundation in the different branches of ordinary 
household work, supplemented by those scientific studies 
which have a bearing on the subjects of cookery, laundry, 
household art, hygiene, etc. 

The Protestant Central Board of Examiners for the 
province of Quebec grants diplomas only to teachers in 
training at Macdonald College, who have received the 
necessary training. Three diplomas are given. 1. Ele- 
mentary Class, studying for the Elementary diploma. 
2. Kindergarten Class, studying for the Kindergarten 
diploma. 3. Model School Class, studying for the 
Model School diploma. 

Before closing this most interesting section of Canadian 
life one must not forget to mention the farmers' institutes. 
These organisations, established in the province of 
Ontario for over a quarter of a century are to all intents 
and purposes farmers' clubs. They are assisted by 
grants from the provincial legislature and by grants from 
municipalities and counties. The object of these clubs 
is to bring together successful and unsuccessful farmers 
so that the latter may learn from their more skilled 
feUow-members the most profitable methods of farming, 
stock-raising, dairying, and so on, in short, all branches 
connected with the local agriculture. The money grants 
are given on condition that the membership reaches a 
satisfactory minimum, that at least five meetings are 
held every year, and that aU moneys are spent within the 
district in which the club operates. The Superintendent 
of the institution is an official of the provincial depart- 
ment of agriculture, and he directs and advises the local 

294 



TORONTO AND McGILL 

executive, arranges the administration of the funds, and 
provides lecturers for some of the meetings. 

There are also women's institutions created by the 
Department of Agriculture with the object of spreading 
knowledge relating to domestic economy, sanitation, 
value of foods, etc., and generally with a view to raising 
the standard of health and intelligence of the people. 
These institutions have an official publication called the 
Home Journal, and judging by the excellent results 
achieved during the short time they have been in opera- 
tion, are likely to be of enormous service to the women 
and so to the men of Canada. 

Universities 

The University of Toronto and McGill University, 
Montreal, are in the front rank of educational institutions 
on the American continent, and their renown as seats of 
learning, equipped and maintained according to a high 
standard of efficiency, has spread far and wide. They 
have on their staffs trained men of talent who have not 
only attained the highest distinction in Canada, but 
whose services have been sought by older and more 
richly endowed Universities abroad. 

Educational facilities in the different provinces of 
the Dominion are numerous and always within the reach 
of those who seriously desire to avail themselves of the 
advantages offered. This applies not only to the 
Universities but also to the Common and Secondary 
Schools, and it speaks well for the educational zeal of 
Canada that there should exist as many as seventeen 
such institutions of varying degrees of importance, the 
majority of them being denominational in character. 

Founded by Royal Charter in 1827 as a Church of 
England institution under the name of King's College, 
the University of Toronto has become undenominational, 
and is substantially supported by the Provincial 

295 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Legislature. Its revenues are derived from the remains 
of the original endowment and additions made to it from 
time to time (under which heads the University is 
possessed of an annual income of 60,000 dollars). The 
average Ontario Legislature also grants 50 per cent, of 
the Succession Duties determined upon the gross receipts 
from such duties during the three preceding years, the 
amount being at present some 250,000 dollars. While 
certain departments of instruction are classed particularly 
under the University College, it has been found possible 
by legislative enactment to secure a more uniform standard 
of higher education by the union of the various denomina- 
tional Universities of Ontario. The University and 
University College constitute one body for teaching 
purposes, and examinations are carried on under the 
regulations of the University Senate. 

The main University building was partly destroyed by 
fire in February, 1890, and many of the valuable contents 
of the Library and Museum were lost. Opportunity 
was afforded, in the course of reconstruction, for great 
improvements in equipment, heating, lighting and 
ventilation, and the new structure has been described 
as " The most symmetrical, the most harmonious, the 
most perfectly proportioned bit of architecture on the 
American continent." 

Besides the fine Convocation Hall and Library there 
is a Physical Laboratory with a well-equipped workshop 
in charge of skilled mechanicians who make the necessary 
repairs and construct most of the apparatus required 
for the work of research duties. There are in addition, 
a Psychological Laboratory, a Biological building with 
museum (which latter is open to the public), a Physio- 
logical Laboratory, a Chemical Laboratory, Geological 
and Ethnological museums. A Gymnasium and 
accommodation for students' societies is also provided. 

Federated with the University of Toronto are Victoria 

296 



McGILL UNIVERSITY 

University and the University of Trinity College. Knox 
College (Presbyterian), Wycliffe College (Anglican) and 
St. Michael's College (Roman Catholic) are also federated, 
while the undermentioned Colleges are affiliated with the 
University :— The Ontario Agricultural College, Albert 
College, The Ontario Medical College for Women, The 
Royal College of Dental Surgeons, The Toronto College 
of Music, The Ontario College of Pharmacy, The Western 
Canada College of Calgary, The Columbian Methodist 
College, The Toronto Conservatory of Music, The 
Hamilton Conservatory of Music ; the following are Col- 
leges which are affiliated with the University by reason 
of their having been affiliated with Victoria University 
when the last mentioned University became federated : — 
The Ontario Ladies' College and Alma College, and St. 
Hilda's College which is affiliated with the University 
by reason of its having been affiliated with Trinity 
College when Trinity College became federated with the 
University. 

The total revenue of the University for the year 1909 
was 754,504 dollars, and the expenditure 679,867 dollars. 
Of the 3,901 students, 2,983 were men and 918 women. 
The total staff of the University of Toronto and University 
College numbered fifty-five professors, forty-four associate 
professors, thirty-one lecturers and associates, and two 
hundred and thirty demonstrators and those with 
sessional appointments. 

McGill College and University takes its name from its 
founder, the Hon. James McGill, who emigrated to 
Canada from Glasgow before the American Revolution, 
and was engaged in the North-West fur trade, subse- 
quently becoming one of the leading merchants in 
Montreal. A Royal Charter was obtained in 1821, but 
it was not until an amended charter was secured in 1852 
and the Governor-General, Sir Edmund Head, interested 
himself in the institution that it started its career of 

297 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

progress and prosperity. The Governors, Principal and 
Fellows of the University are by the amended charter 
constituted a body politic and corporate. The supreme 
authority of the University, however, is vested in the 
Crown, and is exercised by the Governor-General for the 
time being by which means the University possesses a 
National character, and is at the same time removed from 
any local or party influence. Educational work of the 
University is carried on in McGill College, the Royal 
Victoria College for Women and other university buildings 
in Montreal and in the following affiliated colleges : — 
Vancouver College and Victoria College, British Columbia, 
King's College for Women, Windsor, Nova Scotia, the 
Stanstead Wesleyan College, Stanstead, Quebec, the 
Congregational College of Canada, Montreal ; Diocesan 
College of Montreal ; Preston College, Montreal, Wesleyan 
College, Montreal. 

The University has been generously endowed by 
vvealthy citizens, notably Lord Strathcona and Sir William 
C. Macdonald, whose benefactions amount to many 
milhons of dollars. The Library and Museum were the 
gift of the late Mr. Peter Redpath. The equipment on 
the apphed science side is unexcelled. 

Like the University of Toronto, McGill University has 
a splendid Agricultural College, more fully dealt with in 
another chapter, connected with it, known as Macdonald 
College, located at Ste. Anne de Bellevue, twenty miles 
west of Montreal, which was founded, equipped and 
endowed by Sir William C. Macdonald. 

Another important and successful centre of learning 
is the University of Queen's College at Kingston, Ontario. 
Founded by Royal Charter in 1841, it has under the 
guidance of the late Reverend George M. Grant, as 
Principal, attained an enviable reputation for the inculca- 
tion of lofty ideals and the true spirit of University life. 
Like McGill, but unlike the University of Toronto, it has 

298 



UNIVERSITIES 

no connection with the State, but is recognised as an 
integral part of the educational system of the province, 
and its courses of training for teachers are accepted 
by the provincial Educational authorities. The three 
faculties are Arts, Medicine, and Theology, the first and 
last being maintained from interest on endowment, fees 
and donations, the Medical Faculty relying upon fees only. 
A school of mining providing a training in Applied 
Science is affiliated. Women students attend the Univer- 
sity, as in the case of many other similar institutions in 
Canada and the United States. 

McMaster University was formed by the incorporation 
of the Toronto Baptist College and Woodstock College, 
which were united by an Act of the Ontario Legislature 
passed in 1887. Under the will of the late Hon. William 
McMaster the University came into possession of an 
endowment of $900,000. In 1888 the representatives of 
the regular Baptist Churches of Ontario and Quebec 
decided that McMaster University should be organised 
and developed as a permanently independent institution 
in Toronto, and that Woodstock College should be 
maintained, with increased efficiency, in Woodstock. 
By the generosity of Mrs. McMaster, a Ladies' College 
has also been established in Toronto in connection with 
the University, and is known as Moulton Ladies' College. 

Laval University at Quebec was founded in 1852, 
but the Seminary of which it was the outcome was 
established in 1663 by Bishop Laval. This, the most 
important Roman Catholic seat of learning in Canada, 
has a branch at Montreal. A number of Colleges and 
seminaries in the province of Quebec are affiliated with 
the University. The University of Ottawa is another 
college under Roman Catholic direction but with a much 
smaller number of students. Created a University in 
1889, it was founded in 1848 as the College of By-town, 
later receiving the title of College of Ottawa. 

299 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

In the Maritime Provinces are the University of King's 
College, Windsor, Nova Scotia, founded in 1790 ; Dalhousie 
College and University, Halifax, Nova Scotia; the Uni- 
versity of Acadia College, Wolfville, Nova Scotia ; the 
University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, New Bruns- 
wick; the University of Mount Alhson College, New 
Brunswick; and the University of St. Joseph's College, 
St. Joseph, New Brunswick. 

The University of Bishop's College, Lennoxville, 
province of Quebec, founded in 1843, is an Anglican 
institution intended to provide the Church of England 
with facilities for educating the ministry as well as to 
afford a means of securing a sound and liberal education 
based on religious foundation. 

The University of Manitoba at Winnipeg was incor- 
porated in 1877 by an Act of the local legislature, and 
has sole power of conferring degrees in Arts, Law and 
Medicine. The following Colleges are affiliated : — St. 
Boniface College, St. Boniface (Roman Catholic), St. 
John's College, Winnipeg (Anghcan), Manitoba College, 
Winnipeg (Presbyterian), Wesley College, Winnipeg 
(Methodist), the Manitoba Medical College, the Manitoba 
College of Pharmacy and the Manitoba Agricultural 
College. 

This University, as well as those which have recently 
been founded at Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, and Strath- 
cona. Alberta, will soon attain a greatly added importance 
by reason of the rapid expansion which is now taking 
place in Western Canada. 



300 



CHAPTER VII 

Transport and Communication 

The Grand Trunk Railway Company of Canada 

The Session of the Parliament of the Province of Canada 
held in the sixteenth year of the reign of Her Majesty 
Queen Victoria was a most momentous one for the 
Province, for in that Session were passed a number of 
Acts with regard to the construction of railways, the 
principal of which were "An Act to incorporate the Grand 
Trunk Railway of Canada," and " An Act to empower 
any Railway Company whose Railway forms part of the 
Main Trunk Line of Railway throughout this province to 
unite with any other such Company," and from these two 
Acts arose the great corporation now known as the Grand 
Trunk Railway Company of Canada. Acts had been 
passed in previous Sessions as far back as 1832 authorising 
the construction of various sections of the line, but it 
was only under the powers of the Acts above quoted that 
the whole became welded into one undertaking. 

On the 12th April, 1853, an agreement was entered 
into for the amalgamation of the Grand Trunk Railway 
Company of Canada East, the Quebec and Richmond 
Railroad Company, the Grand Junction Railway Com- 
pany, the Toronto and Guelph Railway Company, and 
the Grand Trunk Railway Company of Canada, forming 
a main line through Canada from Sarnia at the foot of 
Lake Huron, through Toronto, Belleville, Kingston, 
Brockville, Montreal, and Richmond, to Quebec, with 
a branch from Richmond, to the United States boundary, 
a total distance, including the Victoria Bridge across the 
St. Lawrence at Montreal, of 964 miles. It was absolutely 
necessary for the purposes of Canada to reach the Atlantic 

301 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Ocean, and a lease was entered into of the Atlantic and 
St. Lawrence Railway, from the United States boundary 
to Portland, Maine, a distance of 148 miles, making a 
total length of line of 1,112 miles, and forming the 
longest railway in existence at that time under one 
control. 

As showing the immense importance attached by the 
Government of the Province of Canada to the construc- 
tion of this railway, no less than five members of the 
Government appear in the original prospectus as Directors 
of the Company, as well as the Speaker of the Legislative 
Council. The names also appear of Thomas Baring, 
Esq., M.P., and George Carr Glyn, Esq., M.P., as " Agents 
of the Province of Canada and Directors of the Company 
on behalf of the Canadian Government." 

The prospectus estimated the cost of the construction 
of the consolidated railways, including the Victoria 
Bridge, at £9,500,000, of which it was proposed to raise 
practically one-half, £4,635,200 by debentures, and the 
remainder, £4,864,800, by share capital, on which it 
was estimated a dividend of 11^ per cent, would be earned. 
It was soon apparent, however, that the sum mentioned 
was insufficient to carry out the work, and in May, 1855, 
an Act was passed authorising the Provincial Government 
to aid the Company by way of loan to the extent of 
£900,000, and again in July, 1856, a further Act was 
passed giving aid to the Company to the extent of 
£2,000,000 again by way of loan on the security of 
preferential bonds. 

With the opening of the Victoria Bridge in 1859 the 
undertaking was completed from Riviere du Loup to 
Point Edward (Sarnia), and in the following year the 
hne from Port Huron, opposite Point Edward, to Detroit 
was leased by the Company, thereby giving access, by 
way of the Michigan Central Railway, to Chicago and 
the West. 

302 



FINANCIAL ADJUSTMENTS 

The result of the opening of the hne was not in accor- 
dance with the original estimates, and the financial 
position of the Company soon became seriously involved. 
A Commission was appointed by the Government, and 
a Committee by the Share and Bondholders, to inquire 
into the past working and present position of the under- 
taking, and the result was " The Grand Trunk Arrange- 
ments Act, 1862." That Act provided inter alia for the 
capitalization of all accrued interest on bonds or 
debentures already in arrear, the conversion of bonds 
and debentures into various preference stocks, and for 
the capitalization of the interest and dividend thereon 
when not earned for ten years from the end of 1862, 
and for postponing the payment of interest on the 
Provincial Debentures until after the payment of a 
dividend of 3 per cent, on the Ordinary Stock for ten 
years, and 5 per cent, afterwards. It also provided for 
the payment of the existing indebtedness by the mort- 
gaging of the Postal and Military Revenue to be received 
from the Government, and the creditors received Postal 
and Military Bonds for £1,200,000 in payment of 50 per 
cent, of their claims — the balance being paid in Fourth 
Preference Stock, and power was also given to issue 
£500,000 of Equipment Mortgage Bonds for the provision 
and improvement of the hne. Another important 
provision was included in the Act, and that was one 
transferring the Board to, and the holding of the General 
Meetings of the Company in London, they having pre- 
viously been held in Canada ; the Shareholders' Committee 
being of opinion that the proprietors were not, under the 
existing circumstances, in a position to protect their 
interests sufficiently. The Canadian Directors retired 
and the Board was re-constructed in London under the 
presidency of Mr., afterwards Sir, Edward W. Watkin, 
who had been called in by London Directors as expert 
adviser. 

303 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

For the ten years after the passing of the Arrangements 
Act, 1862, the only matters of importance were the 
leasing by the Company of the Buffalo and Lake Huron 
Railway, extending from Goderich on Lake Huron, 
through Stratford to Fort Erie on the Niagara River 
opposite Buffalo, a distance of 160 miles, and the inception 
of the project for the construction of the International 
Bridge -across the Niagara river between Fort Erie and 
Buffalo, which was begun in 1870, and completed in 
1873 at a cost of over 2,000,000 dollars. 

The earnings of the Company during this period were, 
from various causes, insufficient to provide the interest on 
the various preference bonds and stocks of the Company, 
except to a slight extent in one year, with the result 
that under the powers conferred by the Act, practically 
the whole of the interest had to be paid by the issue of 
stock, and added to the capital of the Company, which 
has since formed a serious burden on the undertaking. 

Not only could the Company earn no interest on its 
capital, but the road and equipment had also considerably 
deteriorated. 

One of the causes of lack of success of the Company 
was that the line was originally constructed on a gauge 
of 5 feet 6 inches, which prevented a free interchange 
of traffic with other railways, particularly those of the 
United States, which were constructed on the ordinary 
gauge of 4 feet 8^ inches, and it was felt that in any 
arrangements which might be made for improving the 
Company's position, it was absolutely necessary that 
the gauge should be changed to conform to that of the 
other railways. This was a stupendous undertaking, 
considering the financial position of the Company, 
involving as it did not only the changing of the gauge of 
1 ,380 miles of railway, but also the provision of new rolling 
stock of the altered gauge, and the conversion of such 
of the old stock as was deemed worthy of it, as well as 

304 



CHANGING THE GAUGE 

practically relaying the whole of the track with steel rails. 
The task was, however, boldly undertaken, and it is 
impossible not to admire the courage and resource of 
those who at that time had the direction of the Company's 
affairs. To carry out the work it was, of course, necessary 
that further capital should be raised, but before this could 
be done it was essential that the preference bond and 
stockholders should abandon their right to the capitaliza- 
tion of their unearned interests. This was agreed to, 
and an Act was passed in 1873 authorising the issue of 
£10,000,000 of Ordinary Stock at a "discount not 
exceeding eighty-one pounds in the hundred pounds." 
The Act also contained provisions abrogating the power 
to debit interest to capital. The necessary capital was 
raised and the work carried out in the years 1873 and 
1874. 

The next important change in the affairs of the Com- 
pany took place in 1879, when, owing to the action of 
the United States Companies, it became necessary for 
the Company to provide an independent access to Chicago, 
and this was accomplished by acquiring the control 
of various separate railways in the States of Michigan, 
Indiana, and Illinois, and uniting them under the name 
of the Chicago and Grand Trunk Railway, now known 
as the Grand Trunk Western Railway. To enable the 
Company to carry out this undertaking, the Company 
sold to the Dominion Government that portion of their 
system between Hadlow, near Point Levis, and Chaudiere 
Junction, and Chaudiere Junction and Riviere du Loup 
for 1,500,000 dollars, and that line now forms part of 
the Intercolonial Railway. 

On the 12th August, 1882, there took place the amalga- 
mation with the Great Western Railway of Canada, 
thereby adding over 800 miles of railway to the system in 
Canada, and, in addition, giving the Company the control 
of the Detroit Grand Haven and Milwaukee Railway 

305 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

(189 miles) in the State of Michigan. The terms of the 
amalgamation provided that after the payment of the 
preference charges of both Companies the remaining 
profits of the undertaking should be divided in the 
proportions of 70 per cent, to the holders of the Share 
Capital of the Grand Trunk Railway Company, and 30 
per cent, to the holders of the Share Capital of the Great 
Western Company, with a guarantee of a minimum of 
3 per cent, to the holders of the Great Western shares — 
the capital of the two Companies being, of course, kept 
distinct — but in the year 1884 an Act was passed under 
which the capital of the two Companies was merged, 
the holders of the Great Western shares receiving in 
exchange for their 3 per cent, guarantee a stock ranking 
before the First Preference Stock of the Grand Trunk 
Company. 

In 1883 an arrangement was concluded for leasing the 
Grand Trunk Georgian Bay and Lake Erie Railway, 
extending from Port Dover, on Lake Erie, through 
Simcoe, Woodstock, Stratford, Listowel, and Palmerston, 
to Wiarton on Georgian Bay, a total length of line of 
168 miles. 

In the year 1882 an Act of the Dominion Parliament 
was passed to consolidate the Toronto and Nipissing 
Railway, the Whitby Port Perry and Lindsay Railway, 
the Victoria Railway, the Toronto and Ottawa Railway, 
the Grand Junction Railway, and the Midland Railway 
of Canada, into one Company, under the name of the 
Midland Railway of Canada. These lines, with a mileage 
of about 450 miles, are all in the province of Ontario, 
north of the main line of the Grand Trunk Railway, and 
the united lines were leased to that Company on the 
1st January, 1884. 

On the 24th February, 1888, a further important 
amalgamation took place when the Northern, and Ham- 
ilton and North-Western Railways were incorporated 

306 



DOUBLING THE TRACK 

into the system. These railways extended from Port 
Dover, through Hamilton, to Collingwood, Toronto to 
Meaford, Colwell to Penetanguishene, and Beeton to 
Nipissing Junction, with a mileage of 482 miles. 

In 1893 fourteen subsidiary companies, with upwards 
of 900 miles of line, which had been previously worked 
by the Grand Trunk Company under varied agreements, 
were amalgamated with the Company, thereby forming 
the Grand Trunk Railway Company of Canada, practically 
as it exists to-day. 

In addition to the Controlled Lines already referred 
to, the Company by an agreement dated 1st May, 1899, 
acquired the control of the Central Vermont Railway, 
extending from St. John's, Quebec, to New London, in 
the State of Connecticut, with a mileage, including 
branches, of 536 miles, and on the 1st October, 1895, 
control was acquired of the Canadian Atlantic Railway, 
extending from Swanton, in the State of Vermont, 
through Coteau and Ottawa, of Depot Harbour on the 
Georgian Bay, a total mileage of 463 miles. 

The railway was originally constructed as a single- 
track line, and continued as such, with the exception of 
a few small sections, until the year 1888, when the increase 
of traffic rendered it necessary that the main line between 
Montreal and Toronto should be doubled. The first 
section, from St. Henri to Dorval was opened September 
17th, 1888, and the work was gradually continued until 
1893, by which time it had been extended to Port Hope, 
a distance of 270 miles. The remaining distance between 
Port Hope and Port Union was completed in the years 
1901-2-3— the distance from Port Union to Toronto 
having been previously double-tracked. This policy 
of doubling the track has been continued, the principal 
portions so doubled being from Toronto to Hamilton, 
1890-1892; Hamilton to Suspension Bridge, 1901-3, 
and between Hamilton and Sarnia, 1903-4-5, and in 

307 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

the years 1901-2-3 the Grand Trunk Western Line from 
Port Huron in Michigan, to Chicago, was also double- 
tracked. The total of the double-track mileage of the 
whole system, now in operation, is practically 1,000 
miles, including one continuous track from Ste. Rosalie 
in the province of Quebec, through Montreal, Toronto, 
Hamilton, Sarnia, to Chicago, which constitutes the 
longest double-track railway in the world under one 
management. 

The foregoing is a brief history of this first great 
railway undertaking in Canada from its inception as a 
line of railway 964 miles in length with an estimated 
capital required of £8,500,000, to a line of railway, 
including controlled lines, of 5,230 miles, with a capital 
of over £92,000,000. As showing the enormous increase 
in the trade and population of Canada in the interval, it 
may be stated that the receipts of the Company for the 
year 1860 — the first year after completion of the railway 
as originally contemplated — were £682,658, whereas 
the receipts of the year ended 30th June, 1910, amounted 
to about £10,000,000. The number of passengers carried 
over the line during the year 1860 amounted to 739,498, 
compared with approximately 16,500,000 for the year 
ended 30th June, 1910, the number of tons of freight 
moved for the two periods being respectively 685,625 
tons, and nearly 30,000,000 tons, which shows the vast 
benefits which must have been derived by the people 
of the Dominion from this, the earliest projected great 
railway in the Province of Canada. 

Victoria Bridge and St. Clair Tunnel 
No history of the Grand Trunk Railway would be 
complete without special reference to those great engin- 
eering achievements — the construction of the Victoria 
Bridge at Montreal, and the St. Clair Tunnel under the 
St. Clair river between Canada and the United States 

308 



,?*l* 



THE VICTORIA BRIDGE: 

from Sarnia to Port Huron. In the year 1859 there 
were no means of crossing the great St. Lawrence River 
throughout its entire length, except by the unsatisfactory 
means of ferry boats in the summer time, and by sleighs 
in the winter. In certain periods of the year, owing to 
the mo\'ing ice, even these modes of crossing were im- 
practicable, but the construction of the Victoria Bridge 
gave, for the first time, the people of Canada a means of 
crossing their great river in comfort at any time. The 
railway ran from Quebec to Longueuil on the south side 
of the St. Lawrence, and from Montreal on the opposite 
side of the river westward to Lake Ontario, and it was, 
therefore, absolutely necessary that a connection should 
be made between the two sections of the undertaking 
by means of a bridge at Montreal. The construction 
of the bridge presented enormous engineering difficulties, 
the contractors having to contend not only with a deep 
and fast-running stream nearly two miles in width, but 
also from vast floes of ice, often seven feet in thickness, 
and from fifteen to twenty square miles in extent. The 
first stone of the bridge was laid 22nd June, 1854, and 
it was not until the 24th November, 1859, that the first 
train passed over the bridge, and on the 25th August, 
1860, the bridge was officially inaugurated, and the last 
rivet driven by the Prince of Wales, afterwards King 
Edward the Seventh. The bridge was tubular in 
construction, and the following particulars may be of 
interest : — 



Length of ironwork 
Total length . . 
Number of piers 
Number of iron tubes 
Width of centre spans 
,, of centre spans 



6,592 feet 

9,144 feet 

24 

25 

330 feet 

242 feet 



Thickness of centre piers at summer 

water level . . . . . . . . 28 feet 

Thickness of side piers at summer water level 18 feet 

309 

21— ("37) 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 



Material of piers 

Quantity of masonry (piers and abutments) 

Total weight of masonry . . 

Height of tubes 

Width of tubes 

Total weight of tubes 

Height from water . . 

Grade of tubes to centre . . 

Cost of bridge 



Limestone 
100,000 cubic yds. 
223,000 tons 
18^ to 22 ft. 
16 feet 
9,044 tons 
60 feet 
1 in 130 
$7,000,000 



The engineers of the bridge were Messrs. A. M. Ross 
and Robert Stevenson, the builders were Messrs. 
Peto, Brassey and Betts, and the engineer in charge 
was Mr. James Hodges. 

At the time of the completion of the bridge in 1860, 
it was considered the eighth wonder of the world, and 
was the admiration of all who looked upon it. In the 
course of time, the bridge, which was designed to carry 
only a single line of railway, became insufficient to meet 
the demands of the traffic, and it was necessary to replace 
the original tubes by an openwork steel bridge, with 
double lines of rails and carriage ways, and footwalks 
for pedestrians. It was found that the piers supporting 
the old bridge would, with very shght alterations, be 
sufficient to carry the new bridge, the construction of 
which was commenced in October, 1897, the name of 
the bridge being changed to the " Victoria Jubilee 
Bridge " in honour of the Diamond Jubilee of Her late 
Majesty Queen Victoria, which took place in that year, 
and on December 13th, 1898, the double track across 
the bridge came into operation. The construction of 
the new bridge was again a marvellous feat of engineering, 
the new girders being built around the old tubes with 
very shght interference to the traffic during the operation. 
The total length of time the bridge was closed amounting 
to only twenty hours during the whole of the time occupied 
in the reconstruction. While the iron in the old bridge 
weighed 9,044 tons, the iron in the new structure weighs 

310 



THE ST. CLAIR TUNNEL 

22,000 tons. The width of the old bridge was 16 feet, 
while that of the new bridge is 66 feet 8 inches. The 
height of the superstructure of the old bridge was 16 feet, 
and that of the new bridge is 40 to 60 feet. The total 
cost of the reconstruction amounted to about 2,000,000 
dollars. 

The St. Clair Tunnel, which in many respects is the 
most remarkable in the world, is appropriately termed 
" The link that binds two nations." It is constructed 
under the St. Clair River from Saniia, Ontario, to Port 
Huron, Michigan, and over it flow all the waters of 
the great Lakes, which eventually reach the Atlantic as 
the St. Lawrence River. The construction of the tunnel 
was commenced in November, 1888, and the work 
finished on the 30th August, 1890, but it was not open 
for traffic until the 19th September, 1891. The actual 
tunnel itself under the river is 6,026 feet in length, and 
the approaches 5,600 feet additional, or more than two 
miles in all. It is a continuous iron tube, about 20 feet 
in diameter, of solid cast-iron plates, which were bolted 
together in segments as the work of boring proceeded, 
and the total weight of the iron used aggregated 28,000 
tons. The work was begun at both ends simultaneously 
and carried on until the two sections met in mid-river. 
Throughout its entire length it perforates a bed of blue 
clay. The borings were made by means of heavy 
wrought iron shields with sharp edges, fifteen feet three 
inches long, and 21 feet 6 inches in diameter, driven 
forward by hydraulic rams, and as fast as the clay was 
cut away a section of the iron wall of the tunnel was 
bolted to its fellow section. The permanent way through 
the tunnel is laid with steel rails weighing 100 lbs. to the 
lineal yard, which rest upon cross-ties only six inches apart, 
laid on stringers, which in turn rest upon a bed of brick 
and concrete filling the bottom of the tube. The cost 
of this great tunnel was 2,700,000 dollars, and the 

311 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Canadian Government assisted the work by a subsidy 
of 375,000 dollars. Special locomotives having ten 
driving wheels, and weighing nearly 200,000 lbs., were 
built to haul the trains through the tunnel, and up the 
steep grade after emerging, but owing to the unsatis- 
factory ventilation of the tunnel it was decided in 1906 
to substitute electricity for steam as the motive power 
for handling traffic through the tunnel, which system 
has proved a great success. 

Canadian Pacific Railway 
The Canadian Pacific Railway is an outcome of the 
Confederation of Canada ; or, rather, of the admission 
of British Columbia into the Union, it being laid down, 
as one of the conditions on which that province entered 
the Dominion, that a railway should be constructed 
from the east of the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, 
to connect the seaboard of British Columbia with the 
railway system of Canada ; and that such railway should 
be commenced within two years from the date of the 
Union, and completed within ten years. To give effect 
to this condition, in 1872 an Act was passed by the 
Dominion Parliament, setting forth the terms and con- 
ditions on which a company might construct the road. 
Two charters were also granted, during the same year, 
giving powers to two groups of persons to construct 
such a railway. 

As it was found not to be feasible to have two such 
railways under construction at one time, an endeavour 
was made to amalgamate them. This effort resulted in 
failure ; and, acting under powers conferred by the 
Canadian Pacific Railway Act of 1872, a charter was 
granted to another company, with Sir Hugh Allan at 
its head. The circumstances under which this charter 
was granted were severely called into question in the 
Dominion House of Commons. Allegations of corruption 

312 




LONGKST SPAN OF ANY HIGH-ROAD BRIDGE, RICHMOND 



GOVERNMENT CONSTRUCTION 

were made, and acute political complications ensued, 
with the result that the Government of Sir John Mac- 
donald resigned, and was succeeded by that of the Hon. 
Alexander Mackenzie. 

An Act, repealing that of 1872, was passed in 1874, 
providing for the construction of a Canadian Pacific 
Railway, but reserving to the Government the right to 
build all, or any portion of the road, or to purchase any 
portion built by contractors. A route was chosen, and, 
under the policy of Mr. Mackenzie, the work was proceeded 
with as rapidly as in his view the circumstances of the 
country permitted, but work proceeded slowly ; in fact, 
in 1899 only some 700 miles had been constructed. 

The British Columbia Government and people were, 
as has been shown, naturally and greatly incensed at the 
non-realisation of the promise under which they entered 
the Union. Improved means of transportation were vital 
to them, and a fierce and determined agitation arose in the 
province. Protests were lodged at Ottawa, and the 
Premier of British Columbia went to England for the 
purpose of laying before the Imperial authorities the case 
for his province ; eventually, terms of settlement were 
proposed by the Colonial Secretary, and agreed to. ^ In 
1876, Mr. Mackenzie was beaten at the polls. Sir John 
Macdonald again became Premier, and it was decided 
to proceed vigorously with the construction of the road. 
Contracts were entered into, and the work was pushed 
forward. 

Doubts had, since the inception of the line, been 
expressed in many quarters as to the wisdom of 
" Government " construction. These misgivings were 
shared by the administration itself, and eventually, in 
1881, an agreement was entered into with a syndicate, 
under whose direction it was eventually built and 

^ This compromise was, however, found to be difficult of 
adoption, and was not fully acted on. 

313 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

operated. The signatories to the Contract and Agree- 
ment were Sir Charles Tupper, Minister of Raihva^^'S and 
Canals, for the Government of Canada, and Mr. George 
Stephen, Mr. Duncan Mclntyre, Mr. J.J. Hill, Mr. John S. 
Kennedy, Mr. R. B. Angus, and Messrs. Morton, Rose & 
Co., and Messrs. Kohn, Reinach & Co. To this com- 
pany was conceded, under certain conditions, those 
portions of the Canadian Pacific Railway already con- 
structed, and, upon completion, those portions under 
contract. At this time, subsidies of $25,000,000 in 
money, and of 25,000,000 acres in land, were also given, 
as well as lands required for the road bed, stations, work- 
shops, etc., etc. Subsequently, further substantial aid 
was given not only by the Federal Government, but also 
by Provincial Governments in respect of the construc- 
tion of branch lines. Advocates of Government ownier- 
ship point out that, in order to ensure the completion of 
the road, so much of the cost was eventually saddled 
upon the country, that it would have been in the public 
interest had the Government kept the enterprise in their 
own hands. 

It was provided that the work should be carried on 
vigorously and continuously, and that the railway 
should be complete, and in running order, by 1891. 
The time given appeared then to be all too short for 
such an undertaking. Although construction in the 
prairie sections was comparatively simple, the Rocky 
Mountain section, and that on the north shore of Lake 
Superior, presented difficulties of a very formidable 
nature. The latter portion of the road ran through 
a waste of forest and rock and swamp, every mile of 
which had to be hewn, blasted, or filled up. The road 
through the Rockies was difficult, and that through the 
Selkirks proved well-nigh insurmountable. Progress, in 
spite of all, was rapid. Tremendous energy and indomi- 
table perseverance were brought into play. What 

314 



THE LAST SPIKE 

seemed almost insuperable obstacles — both engineering 
and financial — were overcome, and on November 7th, 
1885, six years before the date allowed for its comple- 
tion, the last spike was driven by Mr. Donald Smith 
(now Lord Strathcona), and the steel highway across 
Canada was an accomplished fact. 

The record of the Canadian Pacific Railway has been, 
despite occasional checks, one of marvellous prosperity. 
The Company has not confined its energies to the actual 
railway operations. Its activities are many and varied, 
and the name of the Company is synonymous in the 
Dominion for progress and efficiency. It has a very 
large telegraph system, a chain of luxurious hotels extend- 
ing across the continent, first-class steamers on the great 
lakes, and the well-known steamship services from 
Great Britain to Canada, and from the Dominion to 
Japan and China. Money has been most wisely expended 
in the improvement of the road. Trestle bridges have 
been replaced by steel bridges, and the heavy grades in 
the Rocky Mountains have, at great cost, been much 
reduced. This work was essential, if a large and 
lucrative freight traffic is to be built up on this portion 
of the route. In addition, large sections are being 
double-tracked, and, at the present time, such a track 
is in operation between Fort William and Brandon, a 
distance of over 550 miles. 

One of the principal items in the arrangement made 
in 1881 (to which strong adverse criticism has been 
directed) was the land grant to the Company of 
25,000,000 acres. This grant, whatever else may be said 
— and much has been said ! — had a vital effect on the 
policy of the Company, and gave the impulse to a 
colonising movement which is attracting to the country, 
in ever-increasing numbers, the land workers who are 
so essential to the progress of Canada. Of this grant, 
more than 12,0(X),000 acres have already been sold, and 

315 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

a great expanse of what was once wild prairie is now 
closely settled. A vast irrigation system, the largest 
on the American Continent, has been introduced by the 
Company into the districts east of Calgary, turning the 
grazing lands of Southern Alberta into the " garden of 
Western Canada." On this land a fully-equipped 
demonstration farm has been placed at the disposal of 
farmers who desire practical instruction on the benefits 
or irrigation. 

A still more recent development of this colonising policy 
has been the preparation of ready-made farms for British 
settlers. Under this scheme the Company builds the 
house and barns, digs the well, fences the land, breaks 
a proportion of the soil previous to the arrival of the 
settler from Great Britain, and this, in a large measure, 
saves him the hardships of pioneering. The " prepared 
farm " is sold to the settler on an easy instalment system, 
the payments being spread over ten years. The first 
batch of settlers under the scheme took up residence 
in 1910, and, judging from present reports, the scheme 
is likely to prove a pronounced success. 

On June 30th, 1910, the total mileage of the Canadian 
Pacific lines in Canada was 11,003, and this figure does 
not include the recently acquired Dominion Atlantic 
Railway in Nova Scotia, amounting to 247 miles, in 
addition to running powers for forty-five miles more over 
the Inter-colonial Railway. The Canadian Pacific Railway 
taps the trade of every province except Prince Edward 
Island. The local industries of New Brunswick owe 
much to the enterprise of the Company, which is making 
vigorous efforts to further the colonisation of the St. 
John valley. 

From Montreal, the headquarters and terminus of 
the Company, the two great transcontinental expresses, 
the Imperial Limited and the Pacific, begin their journey 
of 2,898 miles across Canada. From Montreal there is 

316 



HUGE IRRIGATION SYSTEM 

also a direct line to Toronto, continuing to Windsor 
and Detroit, where the Wabash Railroad links the 
Canadian line with Chicago and the Middle West. From 
Toronto one can rejoin the main line at Sudbury by a 
track built through the Muskokas and the French River 
district. Sudbury is also the junction for the Canadian 
Pacific Railway line to Saulte Ste. Marie, where the 
" Soo " line makes the connection with Duluth and 
Minneapolis and St. Paul Railway. From Winnipeg, 
radiate no less than eight Canadian Pacific branch lines. 
The main line passes through Portage la Prairie, Brandon, 
Regina, Moose Jaw, and Medicine Hat to Calgary. Other 
branches are from Portage to Wetaskiwin, and the 
Calgary and Edmonton branch. This latter line is the 
great coal feeder of Northern Alberta, carrying a ceaseless 
procession of freight trains from the vast mines of the 
Crow's Nest Pass. From Calgary to Medicine Hat, for 
a distance of 150 miles, is the great 3,000,000 irrigation 
block. 

This area is the embodiment of a compromise with the 
Government in respect of the land agreement. It was 
part of the bargain as regards the original land grant, 
that although the grant was to consist of alternate 
sections along the line of route, yet the Company had 
the right to reject such land as was not suitable for 
agriculture. In exchange for such rejected areas, the 
Company took over this solid block, a district which, as 
it stood, and in average seasons, was only fit for grazing, 
but which, under a system of irrigation, could be trans- 
formed into valuable agricultural land. The irrigation 
ditches have already been completed on a million acres, 
which area has been filled with settlers from practically 
nearly all the countries in the world. Branch railways 
in British Columbia are the Shushwap and Okanagan, 
from Mission Junction to the International Boundary 
Line, where connection is made with the Northern 

317 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Pacific Road, and from Westminster Junction to the 
important city of Westminster. 

Born of a political brain, the Canadian Pacific has 
created for itself an economic Hfe which its most ardent 
promoters never dreamed of. In a speech dehvered at 
Montreal in October, 1907, Sir Thomas Shaughnessy, 
the President of the Company, made the following 
statement : — 

" There are now in the service of the Company quite 
74,000 officers and employees, with a monthly pay roll of 
3,700,000 dollars, and of the whole number of employees 
I am safe in saying that 70,000 are located in Canada. 
Estimated on the ordinary basis of five persons to a 
family, these would represent 350,000 souls, or more 
than one-twentieth of the entire population of the 
Dominion, and if to these be added the men in rail and 
rolling mills, lumber mills, car and locomotive manu- 
factures, and other industrial establishments who are 
engaged in the manufacture of materials in large quanti- 
ties for the purposes of the Company, I should say that 
one-fifteenth, if not one-twelfth, of the people of the 
country, directly or indirectly, receive their income from 
the Company." 

The early difficulties of the road are now but a dream. 
Its progress of late years has been wonderful. The 
shares were raised to a 10 per cent, basis in January, 1911. 
The gross earnings for 1910 showed an increase of no 
less than 18,676,170 dollars over the previous year, the 
net earnings being 10,884,000 dollars higher. Evidence is 
not wanting of the great progress made by the Company as 
regards its land holdings. The sales aggregated 975,030 
acres, as compared with 376,046 acres in the preceding 
twelve months, while the average price received per 
acre was $1.32 higher. Extensions are proceeding apace. 
A lease of the New Brunswick Southern Railway for 999 
years has been taken; the Dominion Atlantic Railway 

318 



A BRIGHT FUTURE 

has been acquired ; a new line is to be constructed 
to develop the country in the neighbourhood of the 
Columbia and Kootenay Rivers, in British Columbia ; 
and the construction of 553 miles of new branch lines in 
the agricultural districts of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and 
Alberta is contemplated. 

The line has many advantages. It has been stated 
that its capital liabilities, in proportion to its mileage, 
are less than that of any other well-known railway system 
in the world. It has been fortunate in those who have, 
since its inception, controlled its interests — ^men remark- 
able for their energy, integrity, and ability. Its future 
would seem to be bright. Emigrants are pouring into 
the Dominion in ever-increasing numbers, every one of 
whom is a certain customer of the railway. Manufac- 
tories are springing up in every direction, and the great 
natural wealth of the country is, as it were, hardly yet 
scratched. If the prosperity of the road is so great now, 
what must it become as years roll on, and Canada becomes, 
indeed, a nation ? Yet, after all is said, this commanding 
position is the result, in a large measure, of the undaunted 
courage of those who, in the dark days of construction, 
when the whole fate of the enterprise was trembling in 
the balance, " nailed their colours to the mast." 

Canadian Northern Railway 
A Dominion charter was granted in 1889 to a Railway 
Company to be called " The Lake Manitoba Railway 
and Canal Company." This charter, which had become 
derelict, was purchased in 1896, and from this small 
commencement has sprung that great line — destined, 
in the near future, to be one of three great Canadian 
transcontinental lines — now known as the Canadian 
Northern Railway Company. Much difficulty was 
experienced in financing the first piece of line. The 
project was looked at askance in the London market. 

319 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Although, as a matter of fact, the route traversed by it 
formed a portion of that over which it was originally 
intended the Canadian Pacific line was to pass ; and, 
although persons well qualified to pass an opinion were 
loud in the praises of the wonderful fertility of the 
country, and its boundless possibilities, yet the fact that 
the road was destined to open up a territory north of 
any over which a railway had ever been built in the 
province of Manitoba militated against it. The difficulty 
was, however, overcome by the co-operation of the 
Manitoba Government, who guaranteed the bonds, and 
a railway was constructed from Gladstone to Dauphin. 

The year after the line from Gladstone to Dauphin 
was built, the construction was begun of a line out of 
Winnipeg, the Manitoba and South-Eastern Company, 
which was to carry wheat to Lake Superior. Four 
hundred miles east of Winnipeg, there was in existence 
a piece of track running from Port Arthur towards 
Duluth, that belonged to the Port Arthur, Duluth and 
Western Railway Company. This road was bought, 
and a beginning was made to connect it with the Manitoba 
and South-Eastern, which was coming from Winnipeg 
to the Lake of the Woods. This linking up had to be 
undertaken in pursuance of the charter of the Ontario 
and Rainy River Railway Company. While these 
beginnings were being made in apparently haphazard 
fashion, property for terminals was secured in Winnipeg 
and plans prepared for an advance through the 
Saskatchewan valley to Edmonton. 

The Lake Manitoba Railway and Canal charter was for 
a limited undertaking. Another charter, that of the 
Winnipeg Great Northern Railway, was purchased, and 
during 1899, in conformity with it, the original line was 
carried 195 miles beyond Gladstone. In the same year, 
the Manitoba and South-Western had reached Rainy 
River, and from Dauphin westerly, the first twenty-five 

320 




THE BASILICA, QUKBEC 



NORTHERN PACIFIC LINES 

miles had been built in the direction of the Saskatchewan 
valley. 

About this time, it was decided to give the lines that 
would presently be connected, the name of the " Canadian 
Northern." Soon afterwards, and before announcement 
of the change had been made, the Northern Pacific, 
which had 351 miles of road in Manitoba, determined to 
abandon the field ; and this decision eventuated in the 
acquisition of the Northern Pacific Lines in Manitoba 
by the government of the province, and the leasing of 
them to the Canadian Northern for 999 years, with the 
option to purchase at any time. This arrangement 
secured to the Company extensive terminals at Winnipeg, 
in addition to the lands already purchased, and furnished 
a fine within eighteen miles of Gladstone. 

In the first year of the present century the Canadian 
Northern Railway had 1,200 miles of line, and credit 
well established in London. In that year also this 
Company made connection between Winnipeg and Port 
Arthur, but the whole of the line was not taken over 
by the operating department until early in 1902. In 
June, 1902, the system comprised 1,248 miles of completed 
road, and included the Lake Manitoba Railway and 
Canal Company's line, the Winnipeg Great Northern, 
the Manitoba and South-Eastern, the Ontario and Rainy 
River and the Port Arthur Duluth and Western, together 
with the leased hues of the Northern Pacific and the 
Portage and North Western — the two latter comprising 
355 miles, and the first train over the road from Port 
Arthur to Winnipeg arrived at the latter place in January 
of that year. Powers had also been obtained for the 
construction of railway lines from Quebec to the coast, 
and for a line across British Columbia to Victoria, via 
Bute Inlet, In the Montreal Witness of November 5th, 
1902, Mr. (now Sir William) Mackenzie, the President of 
the road, discussed the plans of his Company. He said 

321 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

they would shortly have 1,500 miles in operation, and 
would handle 15.000,000 bushels of wheat in the 1902-3 
season, and would have largely increased elevator accom- 
modation. With reference to the transcontinental 
ambitions of the Company, he stated they proposed going 
along quietly and steadily, and making each section pay 
its way. He added that " we can see the completion of 
the system to the Coast as an accomplished fact." 

A measure was passed by the Provincial Government of 
Manitoba, during the session of 1903, guaranteeing the 
bonds of the Company up to 3,500,000 dollars, or at the 
rate of 10,000 dollars per mile, for the construction of 
branch lines of railway, a guarantee being provided for 
2,000,000 dollars of equipment and rolling stock. During 
this year, the progress of the many projects connected 
with the Railway was very marked. The charter of 
the Morden and North-Western Railway was acquired, 
with a right of construction from Winnipeg to Morden, 
and from Morden across Manitoba to its western border. 
The Great Northern Railway of Quebec, running from 
Quebec to Hawkesbury, a distance of 225 miles, was 
purchased. This line had under construction branches 
which made its total length 370 miles, and had, also, 
traffic arrangements with the Canada Atlantic Railway 
to Parr}^ Sound, and elevator and dock facihties at 
Quebec. Aid was also rendered by the Dominion 
Parliament at Ottawa. Resolutions were introduced in 
the House of Commons by the Minister of Railways in 
connection with the building of a road from Grandview, 
Manitoba, to Edmonton, Alberta. This assistance was 
to take the form of a Government guarantee of the 
principal and interest of the first mortgage bonds, deben- 
tures, or other securities of the Company, to the extent 
of 13,000 dollars a mile. In his speech the Minister 
stated that the country through which the Railway was 
to run was exceptionally fertile, and as promising a 

322 



A TRANSCONTINENTAL LINE 

substantial and paying traffic, and added that the road 
was needed by the people at once. That the Company 
still cherished their transcontinental ambitions was 
shown in an interview with Mr. William Mackenzie, in 
which he said : — " We have not commenced the con- 
struction of the eastern end of the road yet, but we are 
locating the line, and we hope in time to reach Ottawa, 
Toronto, Quebec and Montreal by our road, and we 
will probably put Quebec as near Winnipeg as Montreal 
is at present by the Canadian Pacific. Do we intend to 
establish a transcontinental line ? Well, we have been 
developing in that direction for some time." 

During the year the Grand Trunk Pacific project was 
introduced into Parliament, and it was freely said that the 
across Canada idea of the Canadian Northern would be 
abandoned. In regard to this Mr. Mackenzie stated in 
the Toronto Globe that " It is hardly correct to say that we 
have abandoned our proposed transcontinental line, but 
it does look as though we would have to postpone the 
construction of a through line from the Atlantic to the 
Pacific." 

During 1904 good progress was made. 252 miles were 
added and 441 miles constructed. From Port Arthur 
it, at the close of the year, traversed the rich mining 
and lumber regions of Thunder Bay and Rainy River 
into Manitoba, and then across the rich prairie lands of 
that province, by way of Winnipeg, to Dauphin, where 
one line went across Southern Saskatchewan, while the 
other line struck through North-Western Manitoba 
into Saskatchewan, almost to Prince Albert. The 
Railway had, all the time, been going ahead, not only 
in length of road, but also in earnings, the net earnings 
having increased by some 250,000 dollars over the previous 
year. Of the mileage operated at the beginning of the 
year, 353 miles were in Ontario, 930 miles in Manitoba, 
twenty-two miles in what was then called the North-West 

323 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Territories, and forty-three miles in the State of Minnesota. 
The President, in reference to the rapid progress in con- 
struction in the West, stated that they hoped to get 
into Edmonton in October, 1905, and into Prince Albert 
earlier in the year than that. In reply to a question as 
to their plans on entering British Columbia, he said, 
" You know, we expected at one time to be the favoured 
people to build this new transcontinental road. Now 
we must go along as best we can, and it may take a little 
longer than it otherwise would." 

The year 1905 was very much like preceding years, 
so far as development was concerned. This was carried 
on with the utmost vigour ; and, true to what had been 
laid down by Mr. Mackenzie, each section was made to 
pay its own way. The early completion of the Prince 
Albert branch was promised, and, among projected 
lines was one to Hudson's Bay, and the building of a 
further line to the Swan River country. Charters were 
also granted for the construction of various branch lines, 
and in the report of the Railway Commissioner of 
Manitoba it was said, " I am pleased to be able to state 
that the earnings of the Canadian Northern Railway 
Company during the year were adequately sufficient to 
meet all fixed charges, and for an efficient operation of 
the Company's lines." During the year a company 
called the " Canadian Northern Lands Company " was 
incorporated with a capital of 5,000,000 dollars for the 
purpose of selhng 500,000 acres of the C.N.R. Co.'s land 
grant. 

In the report of the Company describing the growth 
of the Western country, the President pointed out 
that the road gave a direct service to 77 per cent, of the 
people living in the villages, towns and cities of Manitoba. 
He stated that important centres of commercial distribu- 
tion in the new Provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan 
were to be served in 1905, instancing Prince Albert, 

324 



A STORY OF PROGRESS 

Battleford, Strathcona and Edmonton, and that there 
should be a very material increase in the merchandise 
carried in 1906. The number of passengers had increased 
over the previous year by 128,458 and the earnings 
therefrom 189,000 dollars ; freight had increased by 
259,311 tons, and the earnings by 649,147 dollars. The 
mileage operated in June, 1905, was 1,876 miles. On 
November 24th, amid much ceremony and local rejoicing, 
the railway entered Edmonton, the capital of Alberta. 

The same tale of progress has to be told as the result 
of the operations of the Company in 1906. At the close 
of the fiscal year in June, there was a total mileage of 
2,482 as compared with 1,876 in the previous year. The 
increase in passenger traffic was 60 per cent., in gross 
earnings on freight traffic, 46*62 per cent., and in tonnage 
carried 26*16 per cent. In the Annual Report of the 
Company it was pointed out that, while a large increase 
had been received from the movement of grain and 
traffic, and from the farming and immigration business, 
yet, the most noteworthy development was in the mineral 
traffic of the road. 

The completion of the line to Edmonton and to Prince 
Albert marked an important stage in the history of the 
Company. The latter, in addition to shortening the 
route to Winnipeg and the east, opened up a large area 
of prairie land to settlers, and enabled the lumber mills 
at different points to dispose of their production, while 
the former developed a large increase in grain and traffic, 
as well as aiding in a large influx of immigrants. In 
consonance with the policy of the Company since its 
inception extensions took place, and the Qu'Appelle, 
Long Lake and Saskatchewan Railway was acquired, 
this line running from Regina to Prince Albert, a distance 
of 249 miles. The formal opening of the Railway from 
Toronto to Parry Sound took place this year, and the 
road from Parry Sound to Sudbury was pushed forward. 

325 

22— (2137) 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

In connection with this hne from Toronto to Sudbury, 
the principal and interest of debenture stock was guaran- 
teed by the Ontario Government. At a banquet given in 
Toronto, the Vice-President of the Company stated that, 
during the ten years of their work, 132 towns with 60,000 
people had been located, named and surveyed, along 
the lines of the Canadian Northern Railway, exclusive 
of tributary farming population and increased population 
of towns with more than one railway. 

In common with other roads operating in Western 
Canada, the Company had troubles to encounter. Heavy 
storms were experienced in December, 1906, and in 
January, 1907, a great snowfall occurred, which was 
said to have been the heaviest in twenty-five years. 
Trains were held up in all directions, freight stopped 
all over the road, and a shortage of fuel led to much 
suffering. The Railway Company was severely criticised 
by municipalities and newspapers in respect of shortage 
of equipment ; and it is recorded that, on April 14th, 
a train reached Edmonton which had left Winnipeg on 
March 28th. Speaking in connection with this matter, 
a high official of the Company said, " It is at least twenty- 
five years since such a severe winter has been experienced 
in the West, and no railway has been able to successfully 
cope with the conditions, although each road has done 
the best possible under the circumstances." These 
conditions aroused much opposition to applications by 
the Company for new Western lines, and, in the end, the 
questions of extensions were dropped for the time being. 
The approval of the Railway Committee was asked for 
the construction of branches in Ontario totalling 1,200 
miles, and a great number of these were passed. 

On June 30th, 1908, the mileage owned, leased or 
operated by the Railway totalled 2,894, and at the close 
of the year this had increased to 3,100. In an interview 
with the Press, Mr. Hanna, a prominent official, said 

326 



SUBSTANTIAL SUBSIDIES 

that the Company had 5,400 miles in the east and west, 
and that in Western Canada there had been placed on 
the map by the construction of these lines no fewer than 
140 towns. In stating that the Company had 5,400 
miles of road, Mr. Hanna included various interests 
and affiliated railways, such as the Canadian Northern 
Ontario Company, 298 miles ; the Canadian Northern 
Quebec Railway, 262 miles ; the Halifax and South 
Western Railway, 370 miles, etc., etc. An outstanding 
figure in the Western part of the progress of the Company 
was the upbuilding work in the development of towns and 
villages. Apart from the growth of established centres 
caused by the advent of the road, places like Dauphin, 
Gilbert Plains, North Battleford, Vermilion, etc., were 
actually created by it. The public aid given to the 
project was stated by the Railway Department Report 
of June, 1908, to have been as follows : Dominion sub- 
sidies, 5,066,346 dollars ; Ontario bonuses or subsidies 
2,422,500 dollars, and grants by municipalities 182,000 
dollars. In addition to these sums, it was computed by 
newspapers that there were guarantees estimated at 
35,000,000 dollars, and lands granted by the Dominion 
Government totalling 4,100,000 acres. 

In 1909 the progress of the Railway was continued. 
482 miles of road in five provinces were graded and 
brought into use, and 398 miles were graded for steel. 
In Ontario, during this year, a land grant of 2,000,000 
acres was obtained for the construction of 500 miles of 
line between Sudbury and Port Arthur ; the Government 
of Saskatchewan gave a guarantee of 13,000 dollars a 
mile for the construction in three years of 1,175 miles ; 
a smilar guarantee was given in Alberta for the con- 
struction of 920 miles ; in Manitoba 210 miles were 
guaranteed at 30,000 dollars per mile, and in British 
Columbia arrangements were made for a Government 
guarantee of 21,000,000 dollars for 600 miles of Railway 

327 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

from the mountains to the coast. These roads, carried 
the combination of interests well across the continent, 
the only missing link in the chain of connection being 
that between their Nova Scotia lines and the Canadian 
Northern in Quebec. Two steamers of over 11,000 tons 
each were purchased by the Company, and are now 
running regularly from Bristol to the Dominion, and it 
has been declared by the Vice-President that the com- 
pletion of the Canadian Northern Railway to the Pacific 
Coast will see " first-class liners equal to any afloat " 
launched by the Company on both oceans. The gross 
earnings for the year were 10,581,767 dollars, as against 
9,709,462 dollars in 1908, and the operating expenses 
7,015,405 dollars, as against 6,676,775 dollars, and the 
last report of the Company, for the fiscal year ended 
June 30th, 1910, shows that the Railway earned in that 
period 13,833,061 dollars, as compared with 60,000 dollars 
earned in 1897 by the Gladstone to Dauphin line — the 
nucleus of the Company. 

The construction and progress of the Canadian Northern 
Railway has falsified an axiom long held — that a line 
constructed and operated wholly within the prairie 
provinces could not pay. So far from this being the 
case, its earning power has increased with its construction, 
and Mr. (now Sir Donald) Mann, Vice-President of the 
Company, stated, in 1909, that although 2,500 miles 
west of the Great Lakes had been guaranteed as to 
construction by the Federal or Provincial Governments, 
no one of those Governments had, or ever would have, to 
pay a dollar on account of these arrangements. The 
immigration into the Western Provinces is very large, 
and is increasing year by year ; making for increased 
traffic and prosperity for the road. The mineral resources 
on its route are boundless. Already a great and increasing 
business is done in this class of traffic. The coalfields of 
the North-West, immense deposits of iron ore in Ontario, 

328 



TWO MEN AND A RAILWAY 

the Gowganda silver fields, immense sections of pulp wood, 
and mineral wealth of all description, are tapped by the 
Railway, and will unquestionably become, as years go 
on, an increasing and lucrative source of revenue. This 
will be added to, to a very large extent, when the 
extension into British Columbia is an accomplished 
fact, and with the placing of steamers on both oceans, 
and settlement increasing at as rapid a pace as at present, 
it needs to be no prophet to predict for the Canadian 
Northern Railway a future of the brightest. 

It may not be out of place to repeat here what is, after 
all, a matter of common knowledge, the fact that the 
Canadian Northern Railway owes much, if not everything, 
to two men, Sir William Mackenzie and Sir Donald Mann. 
It was essentially their child. They inspired it, worked 
for it, and have fostered its growth in every possible way, 
and it is largely due to their initiative, doggedness and 
perseverance that the Canadian Northern is what it is 
to-day — a great Railway in a great country. 

Grand Trunk Pacific Railway 
The Grand Trunk Pacific Railway Company, which 
was incorporated by Act of Parliament in 1903, has 
undertaken the construction and operation of a line 
across Canada, from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, 
of an estimated mileage of main line of 3,600 miles, in 
addition to several branch lines. A subsidiary company, 
having for its object the construction of branch lines, 
in addition to and including those provided for in the 
charter of 1903, was incorporated in 1906. This Com- 
pany's charter authorises the construction of twenty 
branch lines of railway, of a total mileage of about 
5,000 miles. 

The road is being constructed in two portions, known 
as the Eastern Division and the Western Division, the 
former reaching from Moncton to Winnipeg, a distance 

329 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

of 1,800 miles, and the latter from Winnipeg to the 
Pacific Ocean, a distance of 1,756 miles. The main line 
of the Eastern Division is being built at the cost of the 
Canadian Government, and to be leased to the Company, 
on completion, for a period of fifty years, and the branch 
lines are to be built by the Company. The rental pay- 
able by the Company to the Government for the use of 
the Eastern Division is a percentage on the cost of con- 
struction, it being provided that, for the first seven years 
of the term of the lease, the Company shall operate the 
road, subject only to payment of working expenditure ; 
and that, for the next succeeding forty-three years, the 
Company shall pay annually to the Government, by 
way of rental, a sum equal to three per centum per annum 
upon the cost of construction of the division ; excepting 
that, if, during the first three years of the period of 
forty-three years, the net earnings, over and above 
expenditure, shall not amount to three per centum of the 
cost of construction, the difference between the net 
earnings and the rental shall not be payable by the 
Company, but shall be capitalised and form part of the 
cost of construction, upon the whole amount of which 
rental shall be required to be paid, after the first ten 
years of the lease. By the terms of the lease it will be 
seen tliat the Company will practically have the free 
use of the railway for a period of seven years. In all 
probability, therefore, looking to the fact that no rental 
will have to be paid to the Government until the expira- 
tion of this period, the Company will probably have 
reaped a rich harvest from the trafiic of the road before 
such payment falls due. 

The Western division is being built at the cost of the 
Company, the Government, however, guaranteeing First 
Mortgage Bonds, to the extent of 13,000 dollars per mile 
on the prairie section, and for three-quarters of whatever 
the cost may be on the mountain section. The country 

330 



SHORTEST ROUTE TO ASIA 

through which the prairie section will pass contains land 
known to be well adapted for the growing of wheat, 
which, in extent, is four times the wheat-growing area 
of the United States. This land, which is now being 
rapidly taken up by settlers, will furnish a large traffic 
for the Company as rapidly as it can be constructed, 
while the mineral traffic from the mountain section will 
undoubtedly prove a source of much revenue for the 
Company. A feature much in favour of the economical 
working of the road, is the low gradients over the 
mountain section. 

The point selected for the Pacific terminus of the rail- 
way, namely, Prince Rupert, is situated within fifty miles 
of the southern extremity of Alaska, and is reached 
from the Pacific Ocean via Dixon Entrance and Brown 
Passage. Prince Rupert Harbour possesses some of the 
greatest advantages to ocean shipping that can be 
found along the entire Pacific coast. It has a direct 
channel passage leading into it of more than half a mile 
in width, and is sufficient in extent to accommodate a 
great quantity of shipping. The site of Prince Rupert 
is a picturesque one. The land slopes back gently for 
distances ranging from half a mile to two or three miles. 
Here and there the ground rises abruptly, while a shore 
line, five or six miles in extent, sweeps around the front 
of the city. It is situated about 550 miles north of 
Vancouver, and the new transcontinental railway will 
possess the shortest route from Liverpool to Asiatic 
ports. Prince Rupert lies in the centre of the salmon 
fishing industry of British Columbia, being in the 
immediate vicinity of a large number of canneries which 
ship their product throughout the world. 

Of great advantage and benefit to this new enterprise 
is its relation to the Grand Trunk Railway Company of 
Canada, with its 4,800 miles of railway, on which is 
situated all the cities and the principal towns in Eastern 

331 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Canada, among the former being London, Hamilton, 
Toronto, Montreal, and Quebec, Halifax and St. John, 
the principal cities in the Maritime Provinces, with their 
growing population, and constituting the Canadian sea- 
ports on the Atlantic, which will be reached by the new 
railway, will be large and important contributors to its 
traffic. Not alone are these advantages confined to 
Canada, but situated on this great railway system are 
also the large cities of Chicago, Detroit, Toledo, Buffalo, 
and Portland in the United States. With this unrivalled 
position, the new transcontinental railway will at once 
become an exclusive partner, and from the beginning 
will be placed in possession of an enormous general 
traffic, already created and originating on the Grand 
Trunk Railway system, but hitherto being carried into 
the North-West over other hues. 

An important feature in connection with the new rail- 
way is the fact that it will form the shortest route 
between Europe and Asia ; and, when completed, there 
can be but little doubt that lines of steamships will be 
estabhshed on the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans. The 
distance between the countries named will be shortened 
by two days' sail, this being made possible by the loca- 
tion of the Pacific terminus so much northerly of an 
existing port, thereby reducing the Pacific Ocean mileage. 

The Grand Trunk Pacific Town and Development Com- 
pany, a majority of the capital stock of which is held by 
the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway Company, has acquired 
land for eighty-six town sites, between Winnipeg and 
Edmonton, which have been sub-divided into lots and 
placed on the market for sale, and thousands of lots 
have already been sold. Thriving towns are springing 
up where a short time ago was but the bare prairie. 
The growth is especially noticeable at the division points 
or terminals, of which there are five between Winnipeg 
and Edmonton. 

332 



PRINCE RUPERT 

Train services are already established between West- 
fort, near Port Arthur, to Graham, a distance of 195 
miles, and from Winnipeg to Edmonton (792 miles), 
while branches are operated irregularly for freight traffic 
by construction trains. Of the 1909 crop of the 
Canadian North-West grain, six millions of bushels were 
handled by the Grand Trunk Pacific to Portage la Prairie 
or Winnipeg for furtherance to the Lake ports. The 
Chairman of the Company (Mr. Alfred Smithers), at its 
half-yearly meeting in October, 1910, spoke in the most 
optimistic terms of the progress and prospects of the 
road. He said that they had at Fort William an elevator 
capable of holding 3,500,000 bushels of wheat, and 
capable of enlargement to take 10,000,000 bushels. At 
Winnipeg, the new station, which they were to share 
with the Canadian Northern Railway, was well advanced 
in construction, and he thought that it would be ready 
for traffic in the spring of this year. He had inspected 
the line between Winnipeg and Edmonton, and found 
the country through which it passed nearly all high- 
class wheat land. Several towns had already grown up 
on the route, containing from 1,000 to 2,000 inhabitants, 
as well as many smaller places. Mr, Alfred Smithers 
remarked, speaking of his visit to Prince Rupert, that 
when he was there, in 1907, it contained only 200 people, 
a wharf, and about a dozen houses. There were now 
3,000 residents, banks, shops, stores, and several hundreds 
of houses. Another wharf had been built, and the 
shipping business had increased to a very large extent. 

The Grand Trunk Pacific Railway Company unques- 
tionably has a great future before it. Evidence is 
abundant that the wealth and prosperity of Canada is 
increasing year by year. The products of her boundless 
agricultural lands are in great and ever-growing demand 
in the " Old World." Her natural resources are vast 
and varied. Settlers are flocking in in large numbers, 

333 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

both from Great Britain and the Continent of Europe, 
bringing with them not only their strong right anns. but. 
in many cases, considerable amounts of capital. The 
watchword of the countiy- is " fonvard." In all this 
prosperity the Company will doubtless share, and there 
seems to be no reason why it should not, in the future, 
occupy as prominent a position in the Dominion as its 
great competitors. 

Shipping on the Great Lakes 
The Great Lakes, which term must be understood to 
apply to those belonging to the St. LawTence system, are 
of such dimensions that they might well be termed inland 
seas. Lake Superior has a length of 420 miles, and its 
average breadth is SO miles, the total area being 31.420 
square miles. Lake Michigan is 345 miles in length, 
with an average breadth of 58 miles, and Lake Huron 
400 miles with an average breadth of 70 miles. These 
figures relating to the three largest expansions will serve 
to recall the extensive area covered by the lakes and 
surrounded as they are by fniitful territories, it can be 
readily imagined that there is an enormous and rapidly 
growing fleet of trading vessels carrj'ing cargoes of grain 
and merchandise to and from Canadian inland ports, 
and between Canadian ports and inlands ports of the 
United States, not to speak of the through transportation 
from the head of Lake Superior to the St. L.\wrence. 

The following statement shows the description, number 
and tonnage of Canadian and Cnited States vessels trading 
on the lakes and rivers between Canada and the L^^nited 
States dimng the year ended March 31st, 1910 : — 



-Axrived 
Departed 


Canadian 

Number oi Tons 
Vessels, Register. 

.. 9.110 6,602.352 
8,668 5,579,821 


Number 
of Crew. 

213,714 

193.877 


Total 


.. 17.77S 12,182.173 
334 


407.591 



GREAT STOREHOUSES FOR GRAIN 
United States 



Arrived 
Departed 


N umber of 
Vessels. 

. , 13,809 
. . 14,694 


Tons 

Register. 

5,482,007 
6,099.498 


Number 
of Crew. 

149,921 
149,127 


Total 

Arrived 
Departed 


. . 28,503 

Total 
. . 22,919 
. . 23,362 


11,581,505 

12,084,359 
11,679,319 


299.048 

363,635 
343,004 



Total . . 46,281 23,763,678 706,639 

As compared with the total of 23,763,678 tons it is 
interesting to note, as showing the growth of the lake 
shipping trade, that the total tonnage in 1868 was 
8,663,500 tons, in 1900 12,739,000 tons, and 1905 
16,689,365 tons. 

Port Arthur and Fort William, towns in close prox- 
imity to each other in Thmider Bay, are two of the most 
important ports on Lake Superior, and are the outlets 
for the volume of grain exports from the fertile areas of 
Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta, which though 
huge are still only at their beginning. The Canadian 
Northern Railway Company owns two grain elevators at 
Port Arthur with a capacity of between three and four 
million bushels each. There is another, " King's 
Elevator," in the same town owned by a private company 
on the line of the Canadian Pacific Railway, with a ca- 
pacity of 800,000 bushels. Tlie Canadian Pacific Railway, 
also owns and operates three elevators at Fort William, all 
of which are of large capacity, and others there are owned 
by the Ogilvie Flour Mills Company (500,000 bushels), 
the Empire Elevator Company (1,750,000 bushels), the 
Consolidated Elevator Company (1,000,000 bushels), 
and Davidson, Smith & Company (75,000 bushels). At 
Keewatin, Ontario, the Lake of the Woods Milling 
Company have two large elevators of 750,000 and 550,000 
bushels respectively, and at Kenora there is one owned 

335 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

by the Maple Leaf Flour Mills Company of 400,000 
bushels capacity. These two latter are milhng elevators 
as distinct from terminals. For the most part the 
grain collected by the 1,469 smaller or gathering eleva- 
tors and warehouses in the three prairie provinces is 
eventually forwarded to these terminal points and is 
shipped eastward by the Lake route, the bulk going 
to Georgian Bay and Lake Huron ports, Montreal, 
Kingston, and Prescott, although in the crop year 1908-9, 
seventeen and a half million bushels went to Buffalo 
and other United States ports. In 1908-9 a total of 
65,237,160 bushels of grain was shipped by vessel from 
Fort William and Port Arthur. 

The number of Canadian vessels carrying grain is 
eighty-one, and the quantity of grain carried in them to 
Canadian and American ports during the crop year 
1908-9 was 60,000,000 bushels. Sixty-six foreign-owned 
vessels were also engaged in the trade, carrying a total 
of nearly 19,000,000 bushels. Of these total quantities 
54,695,214 bushels of grain were carried in Canadian 
vessels to Canadian ports. 

Next in importance to Port Arthur and Fort William 
comes Sault Ste. Marie (commonly known as " The 
Soo ") at the point where Lake Superior connects by 
means of the St. Mary's River with Lake Huron. To over- 
come the obstruction to navigation caused by the river 
rapids and a fall of twenty-two feet in three-quarters of a mile 
there are two canals, one on the American side, and the 
other constructed through St. Mary's Island on the north 
side of the rapids, which gives communication on Canadian 
territory between the two lakes. In the year 1909 the 
total movement of freight on the Canadian canal was nearly 
28,000,000 tons, carried in 6,331 passages of vessels, the 
number of lockages being 5,046. This tonnage is more 
than twice that passing through the Suez Canal. 

The cost of the canal was between three and four 

336 



INLAND BUSINESS 

million dollars, but as will be seen by the figures given 
above its importance to Canadian navigation cannot be 
over-estimated. 

Major George W. Stephens, the President of the 
Montreal Harbour Commissioners, is authority for the 
statement that the magnitude of the inland business 
carried to and from the Lake terminals (Port Arthur 
and Fort William) has created a water-borne commerce 
aggregating 225 billion tons per annum, carried in craft 
valued at 233,000,000 dollars, and costing to transport 
less than one-twelfth of one per cent, per ton per mile. 
He has further stated that to move this vast volume by 
rail would probably cost not less than nine times the 
water rate and urges that this is an unanswerable argu- 
ment for the wise development of the Canadian water 
routes and termini. 

Other Canadian ports of importance on the lakes 
besides those already mentioned, to which grain shipments 
are made, and where there is elevator accommodation, are 
Owen Sound, Midland, Depot Harbour, Colhngwood, 
Point Edward, Meaford, Goderich,Port Colborne, Thorold, 
Port Stanley, Tiffin, Toronto, Prescott and Sarnia. 

With the excellent railway facilities existing in eastern 
Canada and in the adjacent States of the American 
Union, it will be readily understood that there are many 
connections by ferry across the lakes, and there are 
besides many steamship services for general freight and 
passenger traffic. These are too numerous to specify, 
but mention must be made of the Canadian Pacific 
Railway Company's Lake service between Owen Sound 
and Sault Ste Marie, and the Richelieu and Ontario 
Navigation steamer service. 

The Great Lakes are open for navigation from about 
the middle of April until about the middle of December, 
and their waters do not freeze in winter except at shallow 
points along the shores. The Dominion Department 

337 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

of Marine and Fisheries enters into contracts with local 
firms to keep open the harbours of Port Arthur, Fort 
WiUiam and West Fort Wilham until December 17th 
in each year by ice-breakers, and to open these harbours 
each spring so as to admit upward bound vessels to 
enter as soon as the Sault Ste Marie Canal is open for 
navigation. 

Contracts are also made to keep open the harbours at 
Midland, Tiffin, Parry Sound, Depot Harbour and 
Colhngwood until the close of navigation in each year. 

Tidal and current surveys, and the provision of aids 
to navigation in the form of lights, buoys, etc., are also 
undertaken by the Government in the interests of Lake 
shipping. 

Canal Systems 

In the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes, 
Canada possesses apart from other navigable rivers, a 
magnificent system of waterways which have been 
rendered more valuable as a means of communication 
and transportation by an elaborate system of canals. 
The importance of establishing such a canal system can 
be readily seen from the fact that through water naviga- 
tion with a minimum depth of fourteen feet is possible from 
the Atlantic Ocean to Port Arthur and Fort William 
on the western shores of Lake Superior, as well as to 
Duluth and Chicago. The distance from the Straits 
of Belle Isle to the two first named places is 2,233 statute 
miles, to Duluth 2,357, and to Chicago 2,289 miles. 

The canal system under the control of the Dominion 
Government by which this means of communication is 
made possible is made up as follows : — 

Length in 
Statute Miles. 

1 . Lachine Canal . . . . . . . . . . 8^ 

Lake St. Louis and River St. Lawrence . . 16 

2. Soulanges Canal . . . . . . . . 14 

Lake St. Francis and River St. Lawrence . . 33 

338 



GOVERNMENT ENTERPRISE 



Cornwall Canal 




Length in 
Statute Miles 

11 


River St. Lawrence 




5 


Farran's Point Canal 




U 


River St. Lawrence 




10 


Rapide Plat Canal 
River St. Lawrence 


•• 


3| 
4 


Galops Canal 

River St. Lawrence and Lake Ontario . . 


•• 


236 


Welland Canal 




26| 


Lake Erie, Detroit River, Lake St Clair, 


Lake 




Huron, etc. 




580 


Sault Ste Marie Canal 




n 


Lake Superior to Port Arthur or to Fort W 


/■illiam 


273 




1,230 J 



The Lachine Canal, which was opened in 1825, overcame 
the obstruction caused by the Lachine Rapids, and thereby 
estabhshed a commercial route between Montreal and 
the Great Lakes, but it was seen from the first that an 
improved channel was required in the St. Lawrence to 
enable large vessels to use this important natural route 
with safety. The work of deepening the channel, first 
undertaken by local authorities, is now being continued 
by the Dominion Government. The channel was gradu- 
ally improved between 1850 and 1888 when the govern- 
ment stepped in and decided to complete the work as a 
national undertaking, at the same time assuming a debt 
of some 3,000,000 dollars. 

The depth of the channel at that time was 27-|- feet at 
ordinary low water from Montreal to Cap a la Roche, 
and from that point to Quebec the tide was available. 
There is now a thirty-feet channel at extreme low water 
from the two first named, and to Quebec by taking 
advantage of the tide. 

The total cost of dredging of the ship channel from 
1851 to 1909 including plant, ships, survey, etc., was 
10,709,993 dollars. 

339 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

By the work of deepening the channel of the St. 
Lawrence the port of Montreal has been opened to ocean 
navigation, and the various rapids obstructing the 
channel above Montreal have been overcome by means 
of the St. Lawrence canals. 

The through route from Montreal to Port Arthur and 
Fort William embraces 73 miles of canal with 48 locks and 
1,167 miles of lake and river making a total of 1,240 miles. 

The WeUand Canal, which overcomes the difficulty of 
navigation at Niagara Falls, and gives access from the 
St. Lawrence system by way of Lake Ontario to Lake 
Erie, was begun in 1824 and completed in 1842. 
It was enlarged in 1841 owing to the increased size of 
the vessels passing through, but this enlargement was 
succeeded by another in 1859. The length of the main 
line of the canal from Port Dalhousie on Lake Ontario 
to Port Colborne on Lake Erie is nearly twenty- seven miles, 
and the number of locks twenty-six. For a distance of over 
eleven miles from Port Dalhousie two distinct lines of canals 
are in operation, the old and the enlarged or new line. The 
rest of the distance (fifteen miles) consists of the old 
canal which was enlarged. 

During the year ended March 31st, 1901, over 2,000,000 
tons of freight passed through, of which 921,866 tons 
were agricultural products. 

Deep water navigation exists from the Welland Canal 
through Lake Erie, the Detroit River, Lake St. Clair, 
Lake Huron and the Sault Ste Marie River to the Sault 
Ste Marie Canal which was constructed through St. 
Mary's Island, and with the river of the same name, 
affords a connection between Lakes Huron and Superior 
on Canadian territory. The total cost of building the 
Canadian canal (there is another at the same point 
passing through United States territory) was 4,216,529 
dollars. It is operated by electricity, which permits of 
great facility in handling traffic. 

340 



CANAL ROUTES 

During the year ended March 31st, 1909, the number 
of vessels passed through was 19,204, the registered 
tonnage of these being 46,751,717, the total freight 
tonnage was 57,895,149, and the estimated value of the 
freight was 626,104,173 dollars, and the number of 
passengers passing through was just on 60,000. 

In addition to the St. Lawrence Canal system dealt 
with above, there are other canal routes, namely, those 
from Ottawa to Lake Champlain, the Rideau Canal from 
Ottawa to Kingston, the Trent Canal (not yet completed) 
from Trenton on Lake Ontario to Lake Huron, and St. 
Peter's Canal connecting St. Peter's Bay on the south of 
Cape Breton to the Bras d'Or lakes. 

Of these minor systems the first named commences at 
Sorel, forty-six miles below Montreal, at the point where the 
Richelieu joins the St. Lawrence, and extends along the 
Richelieu River until it reaches Lake Champlain, the 
distance from Sorel to the International Boundary being 
eighty-one miles. 

The Rideau Canal extends from Ottawa to Kingston at 
the eastern end of Lake Ontario, the length of navigation 
being just over 126 miles. A branch of this canal affords 
communication between Beveridge's Bay on Lake 
Rideau to the town of Perth. 

The " Trent Canal " is a term applied to a connected 
water-way consisting largely of a chain of lakes and 
rivers which will in time afford through communication 
between Lake Ontario and Lake Huron, but is at present 
only used locally in sections. It commences at the 
mouth of the River Trent on the Bay of Quinte. 

St. Peter's Canal in Cape Breton Island is about 2,400 
feet in length, and connects St. Peter's Bay on the south 
of Cape Breton, thus giving access from the Atlantic to 
the Bras d'Or lakes in the interior of the island. 

There is a project to establish a system of navigation 
between Georgian Bay, a branch of Lake Huron, and the 

341 

S3— (2137) 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

St. Lawrence at Montreal, which is at present known 
as the Georgian Bay Ship Canal scheme. The object 
is, by taking advantage of the natural channels which 
can be made to form 80 per cent, of the distance, to open 
up a route for navigation 440 miles in length, and thus 
effect a saving of 282 miles between Port Arthur and Fort 
William and the west coast of Lake Superior, as com- 
pared with the present St. Lawrence route, and 424 miles 
as compared with the route via Buffalo to New York. 

The cost of the project is estimated at from ninety- 
three to ninety-nine million dollars, according to the 
route which may be adopted. 

To the Dominion of Canada the Georgian Bay Canal 
is a work of as extreme importance as the building 
of the Suez Canal was to the commerce of Europe, or as 
the Panama Canal is to the United States. There are 
very evident signs that the deep waterway from the 
St. Lawrence to the great Lakes has now emerged from 
the realms of romance, or mere theory, and is one of those 
great public works of Canada which the people and the 
Government have made up their minds to construct. 
The problem before the country is not whether the 
Georgian Bay Canal should be built ; but whether the 
present is an opportune moment for the commencement 
of a work of such magnitude and cost. 

The charter for the construction of a waterway from 
the St. Lawrence to Lake Huron was granted in 1894 
by the Dominion Parhament to a Canadian Corporation. 
The original project was one for a twelve feet barge canal, 
entering the Ottawa River above Montreal, through 
the Lachine Canal, traversing to Ottawa and the Mattawa 
Rivers, passing through three small lakes to the east 
of the little town of North Bay, where the Canadian 
Pacific and the Grand Trunk Railways converge, and 
passing thence across Lake Nipissing down the French 
River into Georgian Bay. The idea of a barge canal 

342 



THE GEORGIAN BAY CANAL 

was soon abandoned. The sentiment of Canada was 
manifestly against so modest, and as many alleged so 
useless a project. Already there was a shallow waterway 
to the great Lakes from the St. Lawrence through the 
Welland Canal. The Canal Company consequently 
revised its scheme completely, employing as their chief 
engineer the late Mr. Wisner, of Chicago, who stood in 
his day at the head of the hydraulic engineers of America. 

The Company's plans now provide for a canal 460 miles 
long, of which only thirty-two miles will be new canal cuts. 
There will be thirty locks, each 800 feet long. The depth of 
the waterway will be twenty -four feet. At the summit level 
the Company's designs provide for cutting through the 
summit at an additional cost of 10,000,000 dollars, so as 
to use the inexhaustible waters of Lake Nipissing as the 
reservoir for feeding the canal. The estimated cost of 
the canal according to the Company's plans is 150,000,000 
dollars. They have under their amended charter power 
to issue 100,000,000 doUar bonds and 50,000,000 dollars 
stock. They also have statutory power to erect electric 
power stations, construct all necessary dams and sell 
current. It is estimated that at the different falls upon 
the route at least one million horse-power of current will 
be available for the new industries which will be created 
and the new towns served. 

The Canadian Government in 1905 began with the 
authority of Parliament a survey of the Canal scheme 
upon which a sum of nearly £200,000 has been expended. 
The final report of the Government engineers was pre- 
sented in January, 1909, and is a work of great detail 
and importance. Indeed it may be safely said that no 
government has ever had more exact plans and data 
concerning any public work than the Canadian Govern- 
ment possesses concerning the Canal. The route recom- 
mended by the government engineers is practically the 
same excepting at the Georgian Bay entrance as that 

343 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

adopted by the Company's engineers. Both designs 
provide for the use of the Back River on the north side 
of Montreal Island. 

One of the most important points which the Govern- 
ment will have to decide, and concerning which the 
Minister of Public Works recently stated at St. John, no 
decision has yet been arrived at, is whether this great 
enterprise is to be a Government work constructed like 
the Transcontinental Railway by the Government : or 
whether the Canal is to remain a public company working 
under the statutory limitations imposed by the Charter. 
It is quite evident that if this work is constructed the 
Government will be called upon to render substantial 
financial aid. 

The Company have submitted to the Government a 
scheme which they contend combines all the advantages 
of private construction and ownership with those of 
Government control. They offer to accept Government 
representation on the Board ; to appoint as joint engineer 
one of the Government staff ; to submit all tolls and 
charges for Government approval ; and to share the 
profits of the undertaking equally with the Government 
after providing a moderate interest on the bonds. They 
are also prepared to furnish guarantees that the works 
will be completed within eight or ten years ; within the 
estimated amounts ; and that the entire capital needed 
for the work will be provided year by year. 

Sir Wilfrid Laurier needs no urging upon the Georgian 
Bay Canal. Speaking in the Dominion Parliament in 
February, 1910, the Prime Minister said : " If I were 
to tell you my own thought I would say that the financial 
condition of this country would warrant the commence- 
ment of the building of the Georgian Bay Canal this very 
year. But we must above all things be careful of our 
credit, and it would be prudent to complete the immense 
undertaking that we have now under way before starting 

344 



A GIGANTIC WORK 

out on this other giant work. But I hope the day is not 
far distant when we will begin. I will make a little 
confession. I would like to have my name and the 
name of the Laurier Government connected with this 
enterprise. You know I am getting to be an old man. 
I have not many years to live and I want to make the 
best possible use of them." 

Briefly stated, the commercial advantages claimed for 
the Canal are first a saving of 906 miles in the distance 
between Fort William and Liverpool via Montreal 
over the American route via Buffalo and New York. 
Secondly, a saving of at least l^ days in time from the 
head of the great Lakes to an ocean port Nvith a reduction 
of 50 per cent, in the present grain rates. The whole of 
the Ottawa valley would be converted into an active 
industrial centre for the development of the immense 
mineral and natural resources of North Ontario. The 
Canal would supply the cheapest form of transit and the 
most economical form of power. The Canal would bring 
in coal, lumber and the heavy raw materials of trade, 
the railways would carry away the finished products 
which will bear a higher rate. It is perhaps for this 
reason that the Canal has the support of the far-sighted 
president of the Canadian Pacific Railway, Sir Thomas 
Shaughnessy. 

The Canal will turn the Lake cities into Ocean ports. 
The day when an Ocean Liner from Liverpool steams up 
the Ottawa River to Chicago — that day will usher in a 
new era for Canadian commerce. Ottawa, as well as 
Montreal and Quebec, will become an Ocean port, and 
the Ottawa valley will {become one of the busiest and 
richest districts of the world. 

Navigable Rivers 
A glance at a map of Canada is sufficient to indicate 
that the country enjoys an enormous advantage in the 

345 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

matter of water transport, and to render it easy of 
belief that the Dominion controls nearly one-half of all 
the fresh water on the globe. 

The question of transportation is one of the utmost 
importance in a land of such vast extent, and the navi- 
gable rivers are called into service to aid in solving the 
problem of providing cheap water routes for the convey- 
ance of freight to the ocean, as well as from one point to 
another within Canadian territory. 

The mighty St. Lawrence, with the Great Lakes of 
which it is the outlet, forms a complete system of naviga- 
tion from the head of Lake Superior to the Atlantic, a 
distance of 2,384 miles, the river proper being about 
755 miles in length. By means of this great waterway 
ocean liners of thirty feet draught can reach the city of 
Montreal, while smaller vessels, utilizing the splendid 
canal system which has been established at enormous 
cost, may proceed to Lake Superior, thus reaching the 
heart of the continent. 

The source of the St. Lawrence is the St. Louis River 
in Minnesota, which empties into Lake Superior near 
Duluth, but the name St. Lawrence is not actually 
applied to the river until it emerges from Lake Ontario. 
It drains a territory over half a million square miles in 
extent, and its width varies from the enormous expansions 
of the Great Lakes to quite narrow proportions some six 
miles above Quebec where it is soon to be spanned by a 
bridge for the National Transcontinental Railway. It 
widens again to twenty and thirty miles below Quebec, 
and, where it ends in the Gulf of St. Lawrence it is 
100 miles across. Its water is salt as far up as the mouth 
of the Saguenay, and the influence of the tide ceases only 
at Three Rivers. 

The ship channel has been dredged to a depth of thirty 
feet at extreme low water from Montreal to Cape Levrard, 
four miles below Batiscan, a distance of 104|- miles below 

346 




o 

Q 
< 
O 
W 
H 
O 

z 

s 

o 



GREAT RIVERS 

Montreal. Notwithstanding the enormous sums which 
have been expended on the work of improving the channel 
the rapid advance in the construction of vessels of large 
size will render it imperative to still further deepen it, 
and the dredging of a 35-foot channel between Montreal 
and the sea has been undertaken. Passenger and cargo 
vessels of 15,000 tons are now using the St. Lawrence 
route, and it is believed to be the best buoyed and 
lighted channel in the world. 

Of the great tributaries to the St. Lawrence, the 
Ottawa, proceeding from Lake Temiskaming, has a 
length of over 750 miles. By means of canals, the 
obstructions to navigation in its lower reaches are over- 
come, and vessels can reach as far as the Chaudiere Falls 
near the city of Ottawa. The Saguenay (112 miles), which 
is the outlet of Lake St. John, is navigable to Chicoutimi, 
a distance of seventy -one miles. The Richelieu drains Lake 
Champlain, and is navigable to the head of that lake. 

Before passing further west mention must be made 
of the St. John River, some 500 miles in length, which, 
flowing through the province of New Brunswick empties 
into the Bay of Fundy and is navigable for steamers 
from above the falls at the mouth to Fredericton, eighty- 
four miles distant . In the same province are the Miramichi, 
the Restigouche and Richibucto and other rivers all 
more or less navigable for large vessels. 

The Red River, rising in the State of Minnesota, flows 
through 100 miles of Canadian territory and empties 
into Lake Winnipeg. The city of Winnipeg, from which 
point the river is navigable for small craft for some 
220 miles to the south, is situated at the point where it is 
joined by the Assiniboine. The swift-running floods and 
ever-changing shoals of these and other prairie rivers 
are a great obstacle to navigation, especially on up-stream 
trips. The Saskatchewan River is another great natural 
highway running some 1,500 miles through Western 

347 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Canada, but the navigation owing to periodical flooding is 
comparatively limited. 

In British Columbia, the Fraser River (740 miles) is 
navigable for sea-going vessels as far up as New West- 
minster, and above this stern-wheel steamers ply. In 
the north the Stikine (250 miles) can be navigated for 
130 miles and the Skeena (300 miles) for about 125 miles 
by small steamers. 

Other great rivers in the undeveloped North are dealt 
with in another chapter. 



348 



CHAPTER VIII 

Posts and Telegraphs 

The Government of the Dominion assumed the control 
of the postal service at the time of Confederation, and 
since that period the business of the Post Office Depart- 
ment has steadily grown to large proportions. In 1868 
there were 3,638 post offices in operation, while in 1909 
the number had increased to 12,479. The letters posted 
in the former year were 18,100,000, but last year the 
number was 414,301,000. The revenue of the Post 
Office in 1868 was 808,857 dollars, and the expenditure 
785,298 doUars. In 1909 the net revenue was 7,401,623 
dollars and the expenditure 6,592,386 doUars. From 
1869 down to 1901 there was a series of deficits on the 
working, but since the last mentioned year there have 
been successive surpluses, those for 1906, 1907 and 1908 
amounting to over a million dollars, while the surplus of 
revenue over expenditure in 1909 was 809,237 doUars. 

As showing the extent to which the facihties for 
obtaining Money Orders and Postal Notes are used it 
may be mentioned that the total amount remitted by 
these means during the year ended 30th June, 1909, was 
57,740,622 doUars, an enormous increase over that for 
the same period in 1899 which was 15,239,486 doUars. 
The issue of Postal Notes, which are similar in character 
to Postal Orders, was commenced in 1898 for the purpose 
of providing the public with a cheap and convenient 
means of remitting smaU sums of money. 

The number of Post Office Savings Banks is 1,102, and 
the amount received as deposits in 1909 was 9,415,569 
doUars. The balance standing to the credit of depositors 
on March 31st. 1909, was 45,190,484 doUars. 

349 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Canada was admitted to the Postal Union in 1878 when 
a uniform rate of international postage on letters of five 
cents per half-ounce was established. As the outcome 
of a Conference held in London in 1898 on the subject of 
reduced postal rates within the British Empire, the rate of 
letter postage between Canada, the United Kingdom and 
various other portions of the Empire was lowered from 
2-|^d. to one penny her half-ounce. The change which 
came into operation in December, 1908, resulted in a 
great increase in the correspondence between Canada 
and the United Kingdom. It was on the motion of Sir 
William Mulock, at that time Postmaster-General of 
Canada,that this alteration was decided upon, and it has 
unquestionably had a far-reaching effect in bringing 
about a closer connection between the Dominion and the 
Mother Country, 

The letter rate within the borders of Canada was, on 
January 1st, 1899, reduced from three to two cents (one 
penny) per ounce. 

A new postal arrangement which had the effect of 
increasing the number of British magazines, newspapers 
and trade journals posted to Canada was brought about 
by a convention between the Post Offices of the United 
Kingdom and Canada, which came into operation on 
May 1st, 1907. This provided for the reduction of the 
rate on such periodicals forwarded by direct Canadian 
mail steamers, from ^d. per two ounces to a special 
" Canadian magazine rate " of Id. per pound or fraction 
of a pound. Such packets must not weigh over five 
pounds nor exceed two feet in length nor one foot in width 
or depth. A newspaper or periodical not exceeding two 
ounces in weight may still be posted for ^d. 

This change, advantageous as it must inevitably prove, 
was largely brought about by the attention given to the 
matter in the Canadian press, and by the introduction 
into the Canadian Senate in February, 1905, of a resolution 

350 




CATTLE-BRANDING, WESTERN CANADA 



CONCRETE IMPERIALISM 

by the late Hon, Sir George Drummond, the terms of 
which were as follows : — 

" That the attention of the Government be directed to 
the local, foreign and Imperial postal charges with the 
view of remedying certain inequalities therein, and the 
Senate affirms the principle that the conveyance of letters, 
newspapers, books, periodicals, etc., should be at a lower 
scale of charges within the Empire than at the time ruling 
with any foreign country." 

In the course of the debate on the resolution it was 
pointed out that " Imperial sentiment, which is the deliber- 
ate policy of this country as affirmed, is the strongest 
and most effective bond of union in the Empire," 
and that to delay an alteration in the rate of postage was 
injurious to an important factor in the spread of Imperial 
feeling and sympathy. It was further stated that " the 
bookstalls of this country are monopolised by American 
literature and periodicals, and that the appearance of 
an English or Canadian sample is a rare exception." 

An arrangement between Canada and the United 
States came into operation on May 8th, 1907, in which 
the privilege was withdrawn from news-dealers of posting 
neswpapers and periodicals published in the United 
States at a rate of one cent per pound. After the date 
mentioned the rate on these became one cent per four 
ounces or fraction of four ounces, to each separate 
address. By an agreement arrived at a few months later 
this arrangement was modified to the extent of permitting 
an interchange between the two countries of daily papers 
at the postage rate of one cent per pound. 

Another improvement in the postal service was the 
reduction in August, 1908, in the rate on letters posted 
for local delivery in cities having a free letter-carrier 
delivery from two cents per ounce to one cent. The free 
letter-carrier service is also being established at additional 
points as rapidly as possible. 

351 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

The telegraph systems in Canada are for the most 
part conducted by chartered companies, viz. : — the 
Canadian Pacific Railway Company, the Great North- 
Western Telegraph Company, the Western Union Com- 
pany, the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway Company, the 
Temiskaming and Northern Ontario Railway, the North 
American Telegraph Company and the Algoma Central 
Railway. Of these the first two are the most important. 
The Canadian Pacific Railway in 1908 had 11,856 miles 
of line, 1,310 offices and dealt with 2,802,216 messages 
(exclusive of Press messages). The Great North-Westem 
Company had 11,505 miles of line, 1,228 offices and dealt 
with 2,910,458 messages. The Western Union had 
2,591 miles of line in 1908 and the Grand Trunk Pacific 
Company in 1909 had 1,122. 

The Dominion Government owns and operates only 
those lines and cables which have been constructed 
between places where communication is required in the 
public interest, more particularly for signal, fishery, 
quarantine and other purposes of a like character. The 
mileage of land lines is 6,973, of cables 259, the number 
of offices being 401. 



352 



CHAPTER IX 

The "All Red" Route 

With the object of bringing into close communication 
the various parts of the Empire, an idea has been mooted 
in Canada which has found great favour in Austraha 
and New Zealand. It is that an " All Red " series of 
steamships should be inaugurated between England, 
Australia, and New Zealand, via Canada and the Atlantic 
and Pacific Oceans, which in point of speed and comfort 
would satisfy the most up-to-date requirements. 

The word " All Red " is perhaps a little unfortunate, 
since it conveys to the sceptical mind a somewhat vision- 
ary "Imperialistic" idea, with perhaps a touch of jingoism 
and flag-waving. The scheme is very far from that, 
however, and is, in fact, a very sound commercial pro- 
position for the improvement, not only of the relations 
but also of the mutual trade between Canada and Australia. 
■ " The whole trend of modern conditions points to the 
future importance of the Pacific Ocean. The United 
States and Japan have already fully realised its possi- 
bilities, and if Canada, Australia, and New Zealand 
would fully grasp their own they must, so it is urged, 
take active steps to secure the trade they hold and lay 
a foundation for a future increase. 

With the realisation of this importance comes the 
probability that representative ships of the great navies 
of all countries interested in the Pacific Ocean will be 
stationed there. For a navy to be successful in the highest 
sense of the word it must be supported by a strong 
mercantile marine or it has no more power than is 
represented by the range of its longest gun. From the 
point of view of trade, too, the scheme offers a very striking 
field for the commercial statistician. 

353 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 



In 1903 the exports from Australia to Canada amounted 
to £24,837, in 1907 £124,698. The imports from Canada 
in 1903 were £352,939, and in 1907 they were £386,170. 
Some figures are given below showing the increase 
in certain articles of commerce exported by Australia 
to Canada during the period under review. 



Foodstuffs 


Value 1903. 


Value 1907 


Of animal orgin 


i 


i 


Meats 


987 


31,317 


Other 


633 


14,149 


Of vegetable origin 


.. 1,328 


27,339 


Animal substances : 






Hides and skins 


.. 7,153 


9,108 


Wool — greasy 


800 


11,903 


Tin .... 


. . 4,728 


16,156 


Metals. Manufactured 


342 


628 


Timber (Undressed) 


360 


4,398 


All other articles 


964 


4,840 



This growth is due to natuial causes and not to any 
efforts on the part of either government. It is highly 
probable that by means of special arrangements be- 
tween the two countries or by fresh means of communica- 
tion this trade could be stimulated to an extent which 
would entirely repay the outlay demanded by the " All 
Red " scheme. 

j •'?>The above figures refer only to trading exports of 
Canada. It must be remembered that, in regard to 
imports, she purchases in addition from London and 
elsewhere large quantities of skins, wool, and other 
Australian produce. 

Both Australia and Canada are growing countries, 
and their populations are increasing rapidly. In particular, 
British Columbia is becoming closely settled ; and the 
population demands a high standard of living. More- 
over, in British Columbia, again, the seasons differ 
from those of Australia, the winter season of Canada 
being the season of production in Australia, and these 

354 



AUSTRALIA AND CANADA 

conditions favour the exchange of trade. In these 
circumstances the home markets will very shortly be 
unable to absorb the production, and producers must 
look for markets outside to keep their capital in circula- 
tion. Furthermore, the sentiment of Canada is one 
of great friendliness to Australia, and she would welcome 
closer trade relations which would certainly be of benefit 
to both parties. Every state in the Commonwealth, 
with the exception of Western Austraha, has done its 
share in the exports of Canada. Even now the trade 
is limited by the lack of capacity and infrequency of the 
services on the Canadian- Australian line. Larger and 
speedier mail steamers, with a constant development 
of trade, would eventually lead to the placing of cargo 
steamers on the Canadian-Australian line, and also cause 
much more frequent intercourse between the travelling 
population of the two countries. 

It has been the experience of Canada that the tourist 
who returns to his home weU pleased with what he has 
seen, forms one of the finest immigration agents in the 
world, and this being so it is thought that the bringing 
nearer of Australia would eventually secure for her that 
growth of population which she needs before all other 
things. 

It is estimated that the cost, on the Pacific side, of 
the service would be somewhat over £600,000, and with 
this comparatively small expenditure it is thought 
that the closer association between the countries that 
go to make up the British Empire would be quickened 
and stimulated, and there would be an increase of 
communication between the countries. 

If the scheme goes through as intended the " All 
Red " service will bring Sydney within twenty-seven days 
of London, or four days nearer than it is at present, and 
it will give a gain of eight days on the land trip. What 
is of more importance it will bring Australia and Canada 

355 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

much closer than they are at present, and from an Imperial 
as well as a business standpoint would prove an enormous 
advantage to all countries concerned. It will be seen 
that this " All Red " scheme contemplates at present 
only services of fast mail steamers, which would carry 
but small amounts of cargo, They would, however, 
carry express parcels of valuable goods, and what is 
more, they would necessarily be followed by lines of cargo 
steamers to take the more bulky and less valuable 
articles. 

A study of the mail steamers between San Francisco 
and Sydney is highly instructive. Notwithstanding 
that the United States is a greatly producing country 
whose policy it is to sell to other nations all she can, and 
buy as little as possible, the trade between America and 
Australia amounts to several millions sterling, and 
developed on more generous lines would undoubtedly 
have reached a much larger total. It must be remembered 
that fast mail steamers do not carry this trade, but they 
carry commercial travellers, which have made the trade 
what it is. 

The New Zealand Government is so favourably impressed 
with the idea that she has expressed her intention of 
joining Canada in approaching the Imperial Government 
for the purpose of perfecting a scheme by which effect 
may be given to the resolutions passed at the Colonial 
Conference of 1907. 



356 



CHAPTER X 

Area and Physical Features 

Canada occupies the northern part of the North American 
continent, and is 3,745,574 square miles in area. To 
grasp the extent of a country of this size is most difficult 
to the European reader, and it may perhaps indicate 
more clearly the meaning of the figures if we say that 
it is eighteen times as large as Germany or France, 
thirty times the size of the United Kingdom, and 
approximately equals an area the size of the whole of 
Europe. 

It is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on 
the west by the Pacific Ocean and Alaska, on the south 
by the United States, and on the east by Newfoundland 
and the Atlantic Ocean. Both on the western and on 
the eastern shores are innumerable bays and indentations, 
many of which, sheltered as they are, form excellent 
harbours and safe anchorage. From east to west Canada 
extends 3,000 miles, from north to south 1,500 miles. 
On the Atlantic, the principal bay is the Bay of Fundy, 
notable for its extraordinary fast and high tide, which 
runs in various places from twelve to seventy feet at high 
water. 

Cutting into the heart of Canada on the north-east is 
Hudson's Bay, an enormous inland sea with an area of 
350,000 square miles, capable of accommodating with 
ease the whole of the British Isles. There is also the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence, 80,000 square miles in extent, 
which leads to the magnificent St. Lawrence River. 
The St. Lawrence proper is 755 miles in length, and 
drains the eastern part of Canada. Its principal tribu- 
taries are the Saguenay, 112 miles long, which drains 

357 

J4— (2137) 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

the Lake of St. John, the St. Maurice, 400 miles long ; 
the Ottawa, 750 miles long ; the Richelieu, 75 miles long, 
which drains Lake Champlain. There is, besides, an 
innumerable number of streams flowing from north and 
south, those on the north being the more important and 
the longer. The St. Lawrence also serves as the outlet 
for the chain of great lakes which divide part of Canada 
from the United States. 

Lake Superior is 420 miles long ; Lake Michigan 316 
miles ; Lake Erie 239 miles ; Lake Huron 345 miles, 
and Lake Ontario 193 miles long. From the last named 
of these there is a navigable channel through the St. 
Lawrence to the sea. In all, these lakes have an area of 
95,000 square miles. Beyond the great lakes there is 
a number of smaller lakes which yet surpass in size any 
of those to be found in Europe. The Great Bear Lake, 
for example, covers 11,200 square miles ; the Great 
Slave Lake, 10,100 square miles ; Lake Winnipeg, 9,400 
square miles ; Lake Winnipegosis, 2,030 square miles ; 
Lake Manitoba, 1.900, and the Lake of the Woods 1,500 
square miles. Other rivers of great size besides the St. 
Lawrence in the eastern part of Canada are the St. John, 
500 miles long, which rises in the State of Maine, and 
flows through New Brunswick into the Bay of Fundy. 
It drains in its course some 26,000 square miles. Other 
great rivers of the Dominion are the Mackenzie River, 
in the north-west, 2,400 miles in length ; the Coppermine 
and Great Fish Rivers, which flow into the Arctic Ocean ; 
the Saskatchewan River, 1,500 miles in length ; the 
Red River and the Assiniboine, which flow into Lake 
Winnipeg, which discharges in turn of the Nelson River 
into Hudson's Bay. In British Columbia is the Eraser 
River and the Columbia, 1,200 miles in length ; in 
the Yukon district is the Yukon, which flows into the 
Pacific Ocean. Two great rivers, the Peace River 1,000 
miles, and the Athabaska River, 40 miles in length, drain 

358 



PHYSICAL FEATURES 

through a chain of small lakes into the north-west of 
Hudson's Bay. 

On the west, running parallel with the Pacific Ocean, 
is a continuous belt of broad, high mountains, known 
as the Corderillas, or Rocky Mountains. These extend 
from far north in the Yukon, in an almost continuous 
belt through British Columbia into the United States 
of America. The parallel ranges are more than 400 
miles in width, in other words, twice as broad as England 
at its greatest breadth. The coast range runs along the 
shore of the Pacific, and the Rockies proper lie on the 
eastward. Between them are the Selkirks, the Cariboo, 
and the Cassiar. These western mountains sink in the 
east to broad rolling plains, which extend from the 
Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. 

Two breaks occur in its surface, which elsewhere runs 
uniformly and gently to the east. The first of these 
occurs in the region west of Lake Superior, and so gives 
rise to the St. Lawrence, the Mississippi, and the Red 
River. The second is the Ozark Mountains, which 
separates two of the tributaries of the Mississippi. 

In the east the central lowland gradually rises to the 
Atlantic highlands, which, with some breaks, can be 
traced from Hudson's Bay southward almost to the Gulf. 
North of the St. Lawrence they are known as the Labrador 
highlands, and south as the Appalachian highlands. 
These again slope steeply on the east to the Atlantic 
lowlands. From this arrangement of highland in the 
west and lowland in the east, with a slight rise towards 
the eastern coast, results the characteristic of Canadian 
rivers ; short in the west, flowing into the Pacific from 
the mountains ; long rivers from the eastern slopes 
flowing east or south, long rivers from the western slopes 
to the Appalachian, flowing west, and short Atlantic 
rivers on the east. Between the Rockies and Appalachian 
are the woodland belt and the Prairie belt, the woodland 

359 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

in the east extending over 2,700 square miles, including 
the whole of Ontario and Quebec and extending westward 
to Manitoba. 

The prairie belt is about 1,000 miles, extending from the 
east of Manitoba to the Rocky Mountains in the west. 
British Columbia is a high rugged plateau, bounded by the 
Rockies on the east, and the Pacific Ocean on the west. 
Westward beyond the Cascades there is a coastal range 
which appears in the islands which border the Pacific 
coast. Where the Canadian Pacific Railway crosses the 
Rockies there are the Summit, Selkirk, and the Gold 
ranges. These ranges, running parallel, are separated 
by long valleys in which are the tributaries of the rivers 
running west. The topmost range of the Rockies, namely, 
the Summit, rises sheer in towering heights, above the 
plains 3,000 to 5,000 feet high. The highest point. 
Mount Columbia, is 14,000 feet, and is the cradle of the 
Athabaska, which flows to the Mackenzie ; the Saskatch- 
ewan, which flows into Hudson's Bay, the Fraser and 
the Columbia, which flow into the Pacific. Many of the 
peaks in this range of the Rockies rise to 12,000 feet or 
more, and the vast glaciers and snowfields which feed 
innumerable rivers which flow in all directions. The 
Selkirks are lower and better wooded than the Rockies, 
and the Gold and Cascade ranges, lower still, are forested 
almost to their summits. 

In the central plain, beginning in the north within the 
Arctic circle, we find the Tundra region, bare, pitiless, 
covered with a network of lakes. Southward this 
becomes forest, and these in turn, as the climate becomes 
temperate, give way to the grass-lands. 



360 



CHAPTER XI 

Climate 

Some susceptible Canadian folk were much exercised 
when Rudyard Kipling coined the phrase — "Our 
Lady of the Snows " and exception was taken to the 
title by many writers who disclosed an amusing anxiety 
to show that even though the Canadian climate in winter 
was somewhat wintry, it also possessed features more 
approximating in character to the tropical. It is to be 
hoped, however, that when the poet subsequently put 
on record in speaking of Canada that " there is a fine 
hard, bracing climate, the climate that puts iron and 
grit into man's bones," he was fully and truly forgiven 
by the aggrieved ones. 

Sir Wilfrid Laurier, the Prime Minister, during a tour 
in Western Canada in the summer of 1910, said this of 
the climate of his country : " For my part I have no 
fault to find with the Canadian climate. Some few years 
ago Rudyard Kipling, the Imperial poet, referring to 
Canada as ' Our Lady of the Snows,' caused some 
critics to find fault with the title. I approve the appella- 
tion. The climate of Canada is the glory of Canada. 
It is the climate of Canada which makes the No. 1 hard 
wheat. It is the climate of Canada which puts the bloom 
upon the cheeks of the better half of the audience before 
me. When I rise on a winter morning and see the smoke 
rising in the atmosphere one hundred feet above the 
chimneys, perpendicularly in the clear, cold, still air, I 
know what it is that makes our men strong and our 
women beautiful. This country has not been made by 
God for the effete, for the timorous or for the laggard, 
but the strong and willing will find labour rewarded as 
in no other part of the world." 

361 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

It is superfluous to assert that in a country forming 
half the North American continent there must necessarily 
be not one but a great variety of climates, all of which 
are healthy, although in some parts great variations of 
heat and cold are met with. Throughout Canada the 
European thrives and multiplies. 

Taking the country by provinces and beginning with 
Nova Scotia on the Atlantic, the climate of this province 
is similar to that of the North Eastern States of the 
American Union, but without the excessive heat or 
extreme cold experienced there. The mean temperature 
of summer is 62°, and of winter 23°. When it is remem- 
bered that so many thousands of barrels of apples are 
annually forwarded to the markets of the United Kingdom 
and that the country generally is of a fertile character, 
it will be seen that in this province, the climate has little 
to be said against it, and the same remark applies to the 
neighbouring province of Prince Edward Island. 

In New Brunswick, which like the two provinces 
named is known as a Maritime province, the cHmate 
is healthy in winter and summer, although the former 
is somewhat severe, and in the latter a high tempera- 
ture prevails. The average rainfall is thirty inches, and 
the average snowfall eighty-eight inches, while the total 
precipitation of rain and melted snow averages forty-four 
inches. 

In the province of Quebec alone there is quite a variety 
of climate, and the longevity of its inhabitants is the 
best testimony to offer of its healthy character. Generally 
speaking, the features of the climate may be said to be 
cold winters, short springs, and long and sunny summers. 
Snow usually begins to disappear towards the latter 
end of March, and warm weather sets in during June 
continuing well into September. The mean summer 
temperature averages 58*3° and the mean winter tem- 
perature 15°. The winters are distinguished by a dry 

362 



HEALTHY FOR THE ROBUST 

bracing atmosphere which modifies the cold and renders 
them more agreeable than they otherwise would be. 

The province of Ontario, extending as it does further 
south than any of the other portions of the Dominion 
but with territory stretching to the north as far as 
James Bay, and the west to the border of Manitoba 
covering in all some 260,000 square miles, may be 
expected to offer within its own borders a diversity of 
climatic conditions. In the southern portion of the 
province the winter may be said to be only moderately 
cold as compared with other portions. The influence 
of the Great Lakes on the climate not only renders the 
winter less severe, but greatly tempers the heat of summer. 
In the northern portions of Ontario the winters are 
colder and the snowfall heavier, and this applies equally 
to the north-western district known as New Ontario. 
Where the climate is colder, however, the atmospheric 
conditions are dry and exhilarating, and everywhere 
of a healthy character. 

The Prairie region extending from the eastern boundary 
of Manitoba to the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains 
may be taken as a whole, as generally speaking the 
climatic conditions are the same except in the western 
portion of Alberta. The winters, though long and cold 
are sunny and bracing, and the conditions are uniform 
throughout, the low temperatures not being nearly 
so unpleasant to experience as in districts where there is 
greater moisture. The writer has slept practically in 
the open during the greater part of a severe winter in 
Manitoba without experiencing iU-effects. The spring 
is an invigorating season, the summer warm and pleasant, 
and the autumn long and agreeable. 

In the western portions of Alberta the conditions are 
found to be somewhat different on account of the influence 
of the Chinook winds, the warm currents from the 
Pacific, the influence of which extends over the Rocky 

363 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Mountains exercising a moderating effect on the climate 
of Alberta during the winter months. 

Of the climate of British Columbia, Professor Macoun, 
the Canadian Government Naturalist, has stated that 
it is superior to that of England in every respect, both as 
regards heat and moisture. The same authority says : 
" There can be no doubt that when the forest is cleared, 
by whatever cause, the soil will become drier and the 
climate will become considerably milder. Owing to 
the latitude, the sun's rays fall obliquely on the forest, 
and as a natural result there is little evaporation. As 
Germany was to the Romans, so much of the North 
West is to us — a land of marsh and swamp and rigorous 
winter. Germany has been cleared of her forest, and 
is now one of the finest and most progressive of European 
countries. May not the clearing of our north-western 
forests produce a smilar result in the future of British 
Columbia ? " 

The effect of the Japanese current in the Pacific, 
produces a similar effect on the climate of British Colum- 
bia as the Gulf Stream does on that of the United Kingdom. 
The conditions in Vancouver Island are for the most 
part similar to those in the south of England, but the 
summer heat is greater with less humidity. The main- 
land is, however, more humid, and especially to the north 
where the rainfall is heavy. Inland the climate is cold 
in the winter and warm in the summer. 



364 



CHAPTER XII 

Canadian Scenery 

To pretend to give a comprehensive idea of the varied 
scenery of Canada in the hmits of this chapter would 
be absurd, and the reader must therefore be content with 
what may appear to be somewhat casual references to 
scenes and places some of which have become world- 
renowned for their interest and beauty. The Rocky 
Mountains, or the scenery of the St. Lawrence from the 
Gulf to Montreal, would each require to be dealt with 
at great length before it would be possible to convey 
anything like an adequate idea of their majesty, splendour 
and beauty. It must, therefore, suffice if, in addition 
to these, a brief mention only is made of some of the 
many notable landscapes of the country. 

The Rocky Mountains proper, as we have already 
shown, lie to the east of the province of British Columbia, 
but the term is often used to describe the whole of the 
mountain ranges lying between Alberta and the Pacific 
coast. There are, in reality, a number of parallel ranges 
more than 400 miles in width, comprising the Cascade 
or Coast range, the Gold range, the Selkirks and the 
Rockies. The region has been happily described as 
" a score of Switzerlands, with loftier mountains, larger 
lakes, mightier glaciers and rivers, and with a magnificent 
seaboard in addition." Apart from the grandeur of 
the mountains themselves, mention must be made of 
the picturesque lakes high up in the mountains, the 
impressive canyons and beautiful valleys which go to 
make up scenery which for sublime beauty cannot be 
excelled. The National Park at Banff, a reservation of 
some 5,732 square miles embracing portions of the Bow, 

365 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Cascade and Spray Rivers and the Yoho valley, is the 
largest park in the world, and forms a magnificent area 
of momitain, forest, lake and river in which tourists 
to this part of Canada are able to spend holidays under 
the most inspiring conditions. 

Thedomestic character of the scenery of the prairies, 
pleasantly varied by timbered views, requires no detailed 
description, but it has a charm which grows with acquain- 
tance even though the first impression suggests to the 
uninitiated monotony and lack of variety. One of the 
most wonderful scenes is presented by the prairies in 
harvest time, when mile upon mile of golden grain is 
seen waving and glistening in the bright summer sunlight. 

The mighty St. Lawrence River, from the Gulf up to 
Quebec, presents a series of panoramas varying in im- 
pressiveness and beauty. On entering the river from 
the gulf the scenery is stern and impressive, and many 
miles must be sailed before the banks of both shores 
can be seen, until at last the rocky coasts are left behind, 
and the picturesque settlements along the river margin 
come into view. Tadousac, at the mouth of the Saguenay, 
Cacouna, Riviere du Loup, Murray Bay and other pleasure 
resorts are passed, but the scenery becomes still more 
picturesque on entering the channel between the Isle 
d'Orleans and Bellechasse county on the south shore. 
A little nearer to Quebec are the Falls of Montmorency. 
This stupendous cascade presents a most superb spectacle, 
especially when the volume of water is increased by the 
floods of spring or the rains of autumn. The height of 
the Falls is 275 feet, much greater than those of Niagara, 
though, of course, the volume of water is not so huge. 
Some little distance from the Falls are the famous natural 
steps where the river falls in a series of cascades form- 
ing a scene of great beauty. But perhaps the region 
which remains longest in the memory, apart from 
the view of the city of Quebec when approached by 

366 



THE NIAGARA PENINSULA 

steamer, is that known as the Thousand Islands, the 
charm of which has so often been described by its count- 
less admirers. There are about 1,800 of these islands 
within a distance of forty miles, and the variety of 
effect they produce is truly astonishing. On many of 
them are picturesque houses, and the district is one which 
attracts tourists and pleasure-seekers in great numbers. 

The Falls of Niagara, on the Niagara River, which takes 
the overflow of the Great Lakes, the rapids and whirlpool, 
have been so often described that it is only necessary 
to mention them in passing, and to say that their winter 
aspect is possibly more beautiful than at other times. 
The Queen Victoria Niagara Falls Park, consisting of 
some 734 acres, is maintained by the Ontario Government 
for the benefit of the public visiting the district. 

The Niagara Peninsula, so beautiful and fruitful, must 
be seen in all its glory in summer time to be properly 
appreciated as the " Garden of Canada." This delightful 
country with its numerous peach and apple orchards, its 
beautiful cities, towns and villages, must be regarded 
as one of the most favoured as well as most picturesque 
districts in the whole Dominion. 

The Muskoka district, some hundred miles north of 
Toronto, with its picturesque lakes and islands, Georgian 
Bay and the Thirty Thousand Islands, and the magnifi- 
cent upper reaches of the Ottawa River all afford scenery 
of the most attractive kind. Two other famous resorts 
in Ontario are the Algonquin National Park, a forest 
and game preserve about 2,000 square miles in extent, 
and the Rondeau Provincial Park, consisting of about 
5,000 acres. 

In the east and in the Maritime provinces the Lake 
St. John country north of the St. Lawrence, the valleys 
of the Matapedia, the Restigouche, the Miramichi and 
St. John Rivers afford typical forest scenery in many 
places of surpassing beauty. The shores of the St. 

367 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Lawrence, with picturesque bays and health resorts 
and the fishing stations on the many lakes and rivers, 
are well known to tourists who frequent them in large 
numbers. Better known perhaps by repute is the far 
famed Annapolis valley in Nova Scotia, the " Land of 
Evangeline," with which readers of Longfellow's poem 
are so familiar, but in a different sense this is surpassed 
by the charm of the Bras d'Or Lakes in Cape Breton 
Island to the north of the province, which for diversity 
of scenery are justly celebrated. 

No one can claim to judge of Canadian scenery unless 
he has visited the country and seen it in all its glorious 
autumn beauty when the foliage is changing colour, and 
the varied tints of the maple are a delight to the eye. 
It may convey some idea of the scene if one is asked to 
imagine the rich autumn colour of the county of Surrey 
transferred to a thickly-wooded country, but words would 
fail to describe truly that which delights the heart of the 
Canadian and prompts him to rapturous praise of the 
landscape in the glorious autumn season. 



368 



CHAPTER XIII 
Conservation of Natural Resources 

The question of the conservation of natural resources 
is one which has loomed large in the public eye for some 
time past, and it will be interesting to show wliat steps 
Canada has been taking with a view to promote the 
scientific development and conservation of the natural 
resources of the great Dominion. 

In October, 1907, the Inland Waterways Commission, 
which had been appointed by the President of the United 
States, suggested in a memorandum addressed to the 
President, that the time had arrived for the adoption of 
a national policy of conservation. As the result, a con- 
ference of State Governors was held in May of tlie following 
year and subsequently a National Commission was 
appointed to prepare an inventory of the natural resources. 
Later on, representatives of Canada and Mexico were 
invited to attend a joint North American Conference at 
Washington, it being clearly recognised that the principles 
of the conservation of resources had no international 
limitations. A declaration of principles was adopted, 
and the Canadian delegation having reported to the 
Dominion Government, the outcome was the constitution 
by Act of Parliament of a Commission to take into 
consideration " all questions which may be brought to 
its notice relating to the conservation and better utiliza- 
tion of the natural resources of Canada, to make such 
inventories, collect and disseminate such information, 
conduct such investigations inside and outside of Canada, 
and frame such recommendations as seem conducive 
to the accomphshment of that end." 

The Commission which has been appointed under the 
Act by Order in Council includes the Ministers of the 

369 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Interior, Agriculture, and Mines in the Dominion Govern- 
ment and the member of each Provincial Government 
who is charged with the administration of the natural 
resources of his particular province. The other twenty 
members are all gentlemen who, by virtue of the positions 
they hold and their special attainments, are peculiarly 
fitted for membership. The Chairman appointed to 
preside over this important body is The Honourable 
Clifford Sifton, K.C., M.P., one of the leading public 
men in Canada, and some time Minister of the Interior, 
who in his striking inaugural address pointed out the 
exceptional nature of the Commission, and the duties 
with which it has been entrusted. Mr. Sifton has grouped 
the natural resources under the headings of the Minerals, 
the Fisheries, Public Health, Inland Waters, the Land 
and the Forests, and has outlined the directions the Com- 
mission might best strike out with the object of attaining 
what was desired. 

Evidence is not lacking that there is much to be done 
in saving the waste which now prevails to a large extent 
in connection with the production of minerals in Canada. 
To give a few instances only, — much valuable mineral 
is lost in certain districts for the reason that there is no 
effective method existing in Canada for the treatment of 
the ore. Coal which is difficult to mine is not taken out 
of the pit, and the shafts are blocked up. In other districts 
gold-bearing gravels have been covered up by tailings. 

Fisheries are recognised as one of the greatest natural 
resources of the Dominion, and a committee of the 
Commission on fisheries, game and fur-bearing animals 
will in due time report on the measure which can best be 
adopted to strengthen the hands of the various government 
departments concerned. 

The attention of the Commission will be devoted 
particularly to the necessity of preserving forest growth 
which furnishes the best possible water reservoir ; 

370 



TO PRESERVE THE FORESTS 

ascertaining what can be done by methods of agricultural 
treatment which will diminish the run-off and retain the 
proper quantity for absorption by the soil, and by pro- 
viding " catchment areas " which prevent the spring 
freshets thus obviating the destructive force which 
results in erosion, and making use of the water stored 
to supplement the flow in seasons of low water. 

The Chairman of the Commission, in detailing what 
has already been done in Ontario and Western Canada 
in regard to water powers and irrigation, stated that it 
was open to serious question if the time had not arrived 
when all water-power development should be under the 
control of the Governments concerned, requiring a licence 
for development, and subject to general laws making 
regulations in the public interest, and taking a share 
of the profits for the public treasury. 

The conservation of forests is a subject which perhaps 
to many minds would be the most important of all the 
matters in which the Commission could be concerned. 
There are many means which can be adopted to this 
end, and it is worthy of note that during a recent Session 
of the Canadian Parliament a Select Committee of 
forests and waterways investigated the question of the 
flow of water from the east slope of the Rocky Mountains 
through the plains of Alberta and Saskatchewan. Evi- 
dence given before that Committee showed that in order 
to preserve the water supply of these provinces it was 
necessary to prevent the destruction of timber upon the 
east slope. The Committee accordingly represented that 
the forest lands still under the control of the Dominion 
Government should be formed into a permanent forest 
reserve, a recommendation which has been since carried 
out. The prevention of forest fires arising from railways 
and from other causes is also a subject which will receive 
serious consideration. 

There are many other directions in which the Canadian 

371 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Commission of Conservation will, it is expected, exercise 
a powerful influence in ensuring to the people of the 
countn- their full share of the wealth which is produced 
from the natural resources, and its operations will 
certainly be watched \nth the keenest interest at home 
and abroad. 

Water Powers 

It has been pointed out by experts that a check to 
the earlier and greater use of water power was given at 
the end of the eighteenth centiuy by the invention 
of the steam engine which revolutionised industrial 
conditions at that time. 

A greater revolution is taking place by the utihzation 
of water power to produce cheap electrical energy trans- 
missible long distances. To the Dominion of Canada, 
possessing as she does not only the greatest aggregate 
water power in the world, but also raw material necessary 
for the establishment of great industries, this is a factor 
of the utmost significance. 

In his inaugural address to the Commission of Con- 
servation, The Honourable Clifford Sifton, the Chairman, 
made the following striking observations concerning 
the water supply of the Dominion : — " The flowing waters 
of Canada are, at the moment, apart from the soil, our 
greatest and most valuable mideveloped natural resource. 
They are more valuable than all our minerals, because, 
properly conserved, they will never be exhausted ; on 
the contrary, they can be increased. In great areas of 
our countr^'^ they are capable, when fully developed, of 
supplying our entire urban population ^^'ith light, heat 
and power, operating our tramways and railways, and 
abolishing the present methods with their extravagance, 
waste and discomfort. The time when this dream will 
be realized need not be, and probably is not, far distant." 

At present nothing more than an approximate estimate 
can be given of the quantity of the water power existing 

372 



WONDERFUL WATER POWERS 



in the country, but the need of obtaining reliable data 
of the kind has been recognised, and a Committee of the 
Commission of Conservation has undertaken the task. 
In the meantime it is useful to take the estimate of Mr. 
T. C. Keefer, C.M.G., the eminent engineer, that Canada's 
share of the St. La\\Tence basin water power, from Lake 
Superior to Montreal is ten million horse-power. Mr. 
Sifton, in his address before-mentioned, also submitted 
the following figures, based on the best information to 
hand, as being approximately correct for the whole 



juniry : — 


Possible 




Developed 




H.P. 




H.P. 


Yukon 


470.000 




3,000 


British Columbia 


2,065,500 




73,100 


Alberta 


1,144,000 




1,333 


Saskatchewan 


500,000 




— 


Manitoba 


504,000 




18,000 


North-West Territories 


600,000 




none 


Ontario 


4,308,479 




331,157 


Quebec (exclusive of Ungava) 


6,900,000 


about 


75.000 


New Brunswick 


150,000 


no records avail- 
able 


Nova Scotia 


54,300 




13,300 


Total 


16,696,279 


504,890 



It wiU thus be seen that the water powers of the 
country are numerous, and that they are distributed 
over a wide area so that the possibihties for their develop- 
ment for the good of the community are enormous, and 
calculated to have far-reaching effects, not only in the 
direction of increasing the manufacturing capacity of 
the Dominion, but in providing for lighting, transportation, 
electrical power and other public needs. 

Much has been done already to utilize the principal 
water powers in Eastern Canada. The Sha\%inigan 
Falls on the River St. Maurice are furnishing power to a 
number of industrial establishments in the immediate 
vicinity and even suppMng it to the city of Montreal 

373 

25— {2137) 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

some eighty-five miles distant. This is but one of the 
many localities along the St. Lawrence below Quebec 
where power can be developed. The Falls of Mont- 
morency, near Quebec, are utilized to provide power for 
lighting and for the tramways. 

In New Bruns\nck the River St. John is being exploited 
for power purposes. The greatest development of all 
so far accomplished, however, is that of harnessing 
Niagara. In the peninsula there are four Canadian 
power companies, viz. : — the Canadian Niagara Com- 
pany, the Ontario Power Company, the Hamilton 
Cataract Company and the Electrical Development 
Company, and as the power to be obtained has been 
estimated at seven million hoi^se-power, the importance 
of the imdertakings to the province of Ontario is manifest. 
The Hydro Electric Power Commission, appointed by 
the Ontario Government, has constnicted transmission 
lines and distributes power piu"chased from the companies 
to various parts of the province. 

A transfonner station takes delivery at Niagara Falls 
of power at 12,000 volts. A sixty thousand H.P. double 
transmission line conveys the current to a controlling 
station at Dimdas. From that point the line is continued 
to Toronto. From Dundas also a double line of the 
same character is continued via Woodstock and London 
to St. Thomas ^^-ith local transformer stations at tliese 
points. A similar line goes north and west via Guelph, 
Preston, Berlin, Stratford, St. Marys and on to London. 
With local transformer stations at the various places 
named, the voltage is reduced in order to supply by means 
of additional local lines the various municipalities 
adjacent. 

Arrangements have already been made to supply the 
following municipalities with their power needs by a 
current of approximately 27,000 H.P. viz. : — Toronto, 
10,000 ; London, 5.000 ; Guelph, 2,500 ; St. Thomas, 

374 



ELECTRICITY (GENERATED BY WATER POWER 

1.500 ; Woodstock. 1,200; (ialt. 1.200 ; Hamilton, 1.000 ; 
Stratford. 1.000 ; Berlin, 1,000 ; Waterloo. 685 ; Preston. 
600; St. Marys. 500; Ingersoll. 500; Hespeler, 800; 
New Hamburg. 250. 

Provision is also being made for the supply of larger 
quantities as they are required, and for the extension of 
the services to all the municipalities within the area 
which is to be fed from Niagara Falls. The following 
is the basis on which the numicip.dities have agreed to 
pay the Connnission for their supplies :— (1) The contract 
price of the Ontario Power Company at Niagara Falls, 
plus (2) 4% per annum upon that part of the construction 
cost which is properly applicable to each participating 
municipality, plus (3) an annual amomit sufficient to 
create a sinking fund which in thirty years, shall com- 
pletely pay for that portion of the construction cost 
which is applicable to each municipality, plus (4) that 
portion of the line loss and the general operating and 
maintenance charges which is properly applicable to 
each municipality. 

The inclusive rates, so computed, payable by each 
municipality, have been carefully estimated and reduced 
to the following H.P. scale viz. : — 

Toronto . . . . . . $18.10 per H.P. per annum. 

London 23.50 

Guelph 24.00 

St. Thomas 26.50 

Woodstock 23.00 

Gait 22.00 

Stratford 24.50 

Berlin 24.00 

Hamilton 17.50 

Waterloo 24.50 

Preston 23.50 

St. Marys 29.50 

Hespeler 26.00 

New Hamburg .. .. 29.50 

375 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

With the extensions contemplated, the system of 
distribution will cover the whole south-western portion 
of Ontario and the Commission holds that under its 
policy the benefits derived from the production of power 
at the Falls are being distributed throughout the province 
to large and small users alike, " thus contributing to a 
well balanced and general development rather than an 
abnormal expansion of one district at the expense of 
others." 

Another point at which valuable water power is 
utilized is Sault Ste Marie at the junction of Lakes 
Superior and Huron. Pulp and steel mills and other 
industries are here carried on by its use. 

Power is obtained by the towns of Port Arthur and 
Fort William, at the head of Lake Superior, from the 
Kakabeka Falls on the Kaministiquia River, which are 
some nineteen miles distant. 

Other great water powers available in Ontario are 
those of the Nipigon River and the Spanish River, while 
the region through which the Georgian Bay Canal would 
be constructed, as well as the Ottawa River basin com- 
prising some 56,000 square miles in area, offer innmnerable 
opportunities for obtaining water power. 

Further west, water powers are obtained for the city 
of Winnipeg from the rivers in the vicinity, and in 
British Columbia there is a large plant at Bonnington 
Falls on the Kootenay River, to mention one only of the 
many such water powers available in the province. 

The above, which must not by any means be taken 
for a complete survey of the water-power possibihties 
of Canada, is sufficient to show that the people of the 
country are fully alive to the importance of these valuable 
resources, and that there is scope for an enormous 
development in the future. 



376 



PART IV 
PRODUCTION. ETC. 



CHAPTER I 

Canadian Agriculture 

In 1900 the crop value of the agriculture of Canada was 
195,000,000 dollars. In 1909 it was 533,000,000 dollars. 
In this bald fact is to be found a gauge of Canada's pros- 
pect. The Dominion, with her broad prairies, her virgin 
soil, her uncounted forests of timber, and her resources of 
other kinds must remain chiefly an agricultural nation ; 
and since all humanity depends upon bread for its exist- 
ence it is as a wheat-raising nation that she looks to 
become great. The three western prairie provinces, 
comprising as they do the great wheat belt of the country, 
are naturally the most important wheat producers. In 
1900 the three provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and 
Alberta produced 23,000,000 bushels of wheat. In 1909 
they raised 147,000,000 bushels. Of oats in 1900 they 
raised 16,000,000 bushels, in 1909, 185,000,000 bushels. 
In 1900 the crop of barley was 3,000,000 bushels, in 1909, 
31,000,000 bushels. In other words, they are to-day 
producing nearly ten times as much as they produced 
nine years ago. 

Amongst new countries the wheat production of Canada 
stands pre-eminent in quantity as well as in quality per 
acre. In 1909 Canada had an average of hard winter 
wheat of twenty-four bushels to the acre, and spring 
wheat twenty-one bushels to the acre. The United 
States had an average of sixteen bushels to the acre of 
winter and summer wheat. Russia had fourteen bushels 

377 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

per acre of winter wheat and eleven one-twelfth bushels 
of spring wheat, and the Argentine had an average of 
eleven bushels to the acre. This fine average of produc- 
tion speaks volumes for the productivity of Canadian 
soil, and it is only when we tuni to the older nations 
using expensive fertilisers that we find higher average 
productions per acre. France produces twenty and a half 
bushels to the acre, Germany thirty bushels, England 
thirty-three bushels, Belgium thirty-five bushels, and 
Scotland forty-one bushels. 

While wheat is the principal crop grown on the prairie, 
in the more settled districts mixed farming is followed 
where wheat is succeeded by oats seeded down with grass. 
In the newer lands of the Far West, however, the most 
common system is to grow wheat for five or six years, 
then a year of fallow and back to wheat again. Either 
system exhausts the soil, and it is only because of the 
enormous store of fertility in the virgin soil that the 
average production per acre can be so high. As an 
example of what might be done in the way of production, 
Dr. Robertson, addressing the Seed-growers' Association 
and impressing upon them the importance of good seed 
and scientific cultivation, mentioned the fact that the 
farmers of the Province of Quebec received seventy-three 
million dollars from their crop, but if they had had 
a crop equal in yield to those at the Macdonald College 
they would have received 147 million dollars. 

On the prairie both autumn and spring wheat is sown : 
autumn wheat for the most part is confined to the dry 
region in southern Alberta, which some years ago was 
considered too dry for wheat-raising. The scientific 
farmer discovered, however, that there was sufficient 
moisture for the wheat, and that the mildness of the 
winter made it possible to grow autumn wheat. Experi- 
ment showed that the wheat known as " Alberta red " 
could be profitably grown. In 1902 about 3,500 acres 

378 



WHEAT PRODUCTION 

were sown, in 1908 the area under autumn wheat was 
101,000 acres. Sowing begins in July, and during the 
autumn the wheat grows to a height of six or eight inches. 
It remains in the ground for a year, and, as is weU known, 
this longer life allows the roots to penetrate deep into 
the soil and so produce a heavier and earlier crop than 
does the spring wheat. The prairie farmer, however, 
mainly depends upon the spring wheat, and after much 
experiment the variety known as " Red Fife " has been 
found to suit most conditions. 

In breaking prairie-land the farmer prefers to begin 
between the beginning of May and the end of June, the 
reason being that if the land is broken up into a fine 
tilth all the available rain is conserved and there is a 
good supply of moisture for the first crop. 

During the winter the hard frost breaks up the soil, 
and by penetrating from three to six feet into the ground 
provides moisture to the growing roots during the heat 
of summer. In the following spring the seed is sown 
as soon as the weather permits, generally between the 
10th of April and the 24th of May, at the rate of one and 
a quarter to two bushels per acre, and after being in the 
ground from 112 to 120 days the grain is usually ready 
to be reaped. Crops of wheat have matured in as little 
as ninety days. Practically all the reaping and threshing 
is done by mechanical power, and all threshers are licensed, 
one of the conditions of their licence being that they are 
obliged to return the number of bushels threshed and the 
acreage on which they were grown. 

Dependent as this country is upon wheat grown else- 
where for our sustenance, it is important to know to 
what extent we rely upon Canadian and other markets 
severally for our supplies. We need, to feed our popula- 
tion about 100,000,000 hundred-weight each year. The 
following table shows the percentage supplied by the 
different markets of the world. 

379 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Cereal United Other 

Years. States. Canada. Russia. India. Argentina. Countries. Total. 

1886-7 64-9 6-6 39 13-6 110 100 

1887-8 49-8 46 200 82 174 100 

1888-9 33-7 24 298 119 22-2 100 

1889-90 451 3-4 233 116 166 100 

1890-1 400 4-5 19-8 134 223 100 

1891-2 59-2 5-2 64 158 27 107 100 

1892-3 661 5-7 84 58 6 2 78 100 

1893-4 49-8 46 172 66 122 96 100 

1894-5 42-3 43 215 71 132 116 100 

1895-6 50-2 6-4 189 50 63 132 100 

1896-7 559 63 166 -5 14 193 100 

1897-8 639 74 104 85 42 56 100 

1898-9 645 99 33 88 74 61 100 

1899-00 58-7 91 30 16 19 1 85 100 

1900-1 64-4 7-9 36 13 111 117 100 

1901-2 61-7 10-7 30 73 49 124 100 

1902-3 486 12-6 123 107 10 6 52 100 

1903-4 25-7 10-4 161 193 146 139 100 

1904-5 8-3 4-4 240 242 207 18-4 100 

1905-6 271 120 160 103 20 4 142 100 

1906-7 29-3 11-9 114 129 197 14-8 100 

1907-8 35-7 14-3 40 95 257 108 100 

It is to be noted that the year 1911 will, it is expected, 
record a fifty per cent, increase in the grain acreage of 
Western Canada. 

A comparison of the wheat production of Canada to 
that of the rest of the world is interesting and instructive. 
In the whole of Canada 169.000,000 bushels of wheat 
were produced in 1909 : in the same year the United 
States produced 730,000,000 bushels, Russia 780,000,000 
bushels, Argentina, a comparatively new-comer among 
wheat-growing nations, 172,000,000 bushels, and 
Australia 66,000,000 bushels. 

From these figures it will be seen that the United 
States is one of the great wheat-producing countries, 
but it is well to remember that there is a widely-held 
opinion that the United States in the future, so far from 

380 



WHEAT-PRODUCING CAPACITY 

keeping her place as a food exporting nation, will, because 
of her rapidly-increasing population, become in the next 
half-century a -food importing nation. The United 
States has not- for some years succeeded in increasing 
her wheat production to any great extent, and since it 
is estimated that in the next half-century she will have to 
provide for a population of 200,000,000 people, and they 
will require over 1,000,000,000 bushels of wheat for their 
home markets. This being so it is argued they will be 
driven for their food to Canada, Argentina, and other 
markets of the world, but principally to Canada. The 
Russian and Indian crops fluctuate in the most remark- 
able manner, and Argentina is subject to numerous 
pests in the form of locusts and seasons of drought. 

Therefore, though Canada has her own troubles, it is 
to her that we must look mainly for the increase for 
which the world will soon be wanting. But what, it is 
demanded, are her resources ? Taking the three North- 
West provinces we find that her total crops of 195,000,000 
dollars are raised on 12,000,000 acres. 7,000,000 of 
these acres were in wheat and produced 147,000,000 
bushels. 

About two years ago it was estimated that the land in 
the hands of settlers amounts to about 46,000,000 acres, 
of which 12,000,000 were cultivated : 7,000,000 being 
in wheat. Of these there are about 32,000,000 acres 
in the hands of railroads and other corporations (not 
settlers). There are, in addition, about 45,000,000 
acres surveyed, and there are probably something like 
90,000,000 acres of agricultural land unsurveyed. The 
total of these is 213,000,000 acres for the three provinces, 
of which 50,000,000 acres are probably suitable for 
wheat production with ordinary methods of farming — 
in other words, about seven times the area that was 
cultivated in 1909. If it were possible to keep up the 
average production per acre this would give a crop of 

381 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

about 1,000,000,000 bushels of wheat for the three prairie 
provinces. 

In dealing with the unsurveyed land north of the 
general surveys, criticism might be made that it is too 
far north to grow wheat. This is not so. In the 
northern country the conditions for producing the very 
finest kind of wheat are excellent. The long days of 
sunshine which nourish the com, and the rapid develop- 
ment of the crop, coupled with the store of nitrogen in 
the virgin soil all make for production of wheat con- 
taining the largest proportion of protein in the world. 
It is a striking fact that for many years now the Minnea- 
polis and St. Paul millers have bought Canadian wheat 
to mix with their own in order to keep up the standard 
grade of their flour. For several years back the very 
best quality of wheat has been grown in moderately 
large quantities as far north as 58^ latitude, and the same 
latitude as Sutherland and Caithness, in the north of 
Scotland. 

It is hardly to be expected that other branches of 
farming should be as popular as grain-growing ; never- 
theless, there has been quite a satisfactory increase in 
the number of live-stock in the country. The following 
table shows the number of cattle kept in Canada in the 
years 1901 and 1909. The 1901 figures are those of the 
census, and those of 1909 are taken from the Census 
and Statistics Monthly of the Department of Agriculture. 

Number of Cattle Kept 1901 







Total number of 


Province 


1909 


cattle including 
nulch cows 


Canada 


7,234,085 


5.577.541 


Prince Edward Island 1 1 1 ,928 


112,779 


Nova Scotia 


338,570 


316,174 


New Brunswick 


236,427 


227,196 


Quebec 


1,193,230 


1,365,869 


Ontario 


2.890,378 


2,487,806 


Manitoba 


501,194 


349,886 



382 



DAIRYING IN NOVA SCOTIA 

Number of Cattle Kept (conid.) I90i 

Total number of 
Provinck 1909 caUle including 

milch cows 
Saskatchewan .. .. 521,419 217,053 

Alberta 1,126,918 375,686 

British Columbia .. .. — 125,002 

Mixed Farming 

Ontario has been called the provmce of mixed farming. 
Excellent beef breeds are found in many parts, and 
Shorthorns, Herefords, and Polled Aberdeen Angus are 
to be seen which would be no discredit to the old country. 
Prince Edward Island has large numbers of cattle used 
for dairying purposes, and some years ago every small 
farmer fattened three or four steers ; but of late the 
quality has deteriorated. In the last two or three years, 
however, some good bulls haVe been imported, and the 
industry is reviving. In Nova Scotia the conditions of 
dairy cattle-keeping are excellent, and there is a good 
demand for dairy produce. The dykelands, formed of 
mud brought up by the high tides of the Bay of Fiindy, 
is very fertile and produces splendid hay. Many farmers 
in this region are engaged in beef producing, and keep a 
moderately good class of cattle for this purpose. In the 
fruit districts, too, some little beef is produced since 
farmers require a class of animal that needs less attention 
than dairy cattle. The Provincial Government gives 
giants under an Act passed for the encouragement of 
agriculture, and a good deal of money has been expended 
on the purchase of bulls for the agricultural societies 
with a view to improving the breed. 

Quebec being a closely settled province devotes special 
attention to dairy produce, much of which is purchased 
by the cities of Montreal, Quebec and Ottawa. It is 
hardly to be expected that Manitoba and the two other 
prairie provinces should, while wheat prices remain high, 
produce a great amount of cattle, but their capacity in 
that line is very great. 

383 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Curiously enough the cattle trade of British Columbia, 
where at one time cattle-raising was a chief industry, 
has almost completely died out, though there are good 
cattle to be seen in some districts. Much of the beef 
supply at present is imported from Alberta. With its 
moist climate, well situated to the production of grass 
and fruit, and its mild winter it would seem that as the 
province grows there must be a large expansion of the 
cattle industry. 

One cannot leave the cattle industry without a note 
on the embargo against the importation of Canadian 
cattle into Great Britain. As far as the ordinary infec- 
tious diseases are concerned, for example, pleuro-pneu- 
monia, foot-and-mouth disease, rinderpest, etc., there 
is practically no trace to be found in any part of the 
Dominion. The onus of reporting infectious diseases 
lies upon the owners of the cattle. 

Precautions have been adopted against the importation 
from the United States, Newfoundland and Mexico, and 
a chain of sixty-seven inspection stations have been 
installed on or near the frontier through which all live- 
stock must enter. A heavy fine and liability to confisca- 
tion of stock is incurred by any attempt to evade the 
customs duty or to cross the frontier without inspection. 
The Canadian farmers and ranchers would, of course, 
welcome the removal of the embargo, but there are those 
who, looking at the subject from the more enconomic 
point prefer the cattle should be fattened and killed in 
Canada, so using up the food-stuff which is available, 
and building up a dead meat trade by the formation of 
packing centres and chilling houses at suitable points. 

Horses. When the Spaniards invaded Mexico in 
the sixteenth century they brought over with them large 
numbers of Spanish horses, many of which were abandoned 
or escaped from their owners and spread over the American 
continent to become wild horses of a particularly good 

384 



HORSE-BREEDING 

type. The number of horses in Canada in the year 
1901 was 1,577.493, and in 1909 2,132,489. About the 
two most popular breeds, Clydesdales and Percherons, 
there is considerable difference of opinion. It is claimed 
by many that the Percheron is more suitable to the 
country, but, on the other hand, the Clydesdale, with its 
greater weight of between 1,500 to 2,000 lbs. is the more 
powerful, the better boned, and makes the better waggon- 
horse. Considerable interest is being taken both by the 
provincial governments and the local horse-breeding 
societies in the question of breeding draft-horses, and in 
view of the continuously increasing demand and rising 
price it is probable that horse-breeding will revive to be a 
profitable business for many years to come. There is 
a growing demand for street draft horses of 1,500 to 
1,800 lbs., and since these horses cost no more to raise 
than the ordinary nondescript horse, which is too common 
at present, the farmer may be expected to take up the 
matter much more systematically than heretofore. 

It has been estimated by a ranch owner in Calgary 
district that he can grow horses to four years old for £10 
each ; in the east the estimate is £20. Prices for the 
best class of five-year old horses range from £60 to £80 
each. £100 is not an unheard-of price for a first-class 
heavy draught horse. 

Sheep. It is a curious fact that although many 
parts of the climate of Canada are entirely suitable to 
the production of wool of good quality the sheep industry 
is falling off in almost every province. In 1881 the total 
number of sheep in the Dominion was over 3,000,000, 
whilst twenty years later, in 1901, it was not more than 
2,500,000. In 1909 the total number was 2,705,000. 
There is this to be remembered that the Canadian farmer 
is very adaptable, and in bad sheep-keeping years the 
flocks were given up by many who found it more profit- 
able to adhere to agriculture pure and simple. Another 

385 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

fact must also be borne in mind, viz., that years ago, when 
the Eastern country was not in such a developed state and 
homespun was the rule, each farmer kept a small stock of 
sheep for clothing himself and his family. 

The Maritime provinces seem to be showing more 
enterprise in the matter of sheep-keeping than the others. 

The present Minister of Agriculture, Mr. Sydney 
Fisher, himself a scientific farmer, is fully seized of the 
importance of the Sheep industry, and during the autumn 
of 1910, arranged for two experts to visit Great Britain 
and carefully investigate conditions bearing on the 
whole question with a view to advising the Canadian 
farmer as to the breeds of sheep suitable for the particular 
localities and the characteristics affecting wool and meat 
production. 

Quite a large number of lambs is exported from these 
provinces to Boston or New York. They are much 
appreciated and bring high prices, bought on the farm, 
live weight, 5 or 5^ cents per lb. is quite a usual price. 
Of recent years a market for lambs has been opened 
by the starting of feeding stations at the various points 
where light and refuse grain can be successfully utilised 
as feeding stuff. 

The Department of Agriculture 
For a great measure of her success in producing and 
marketing her food stuffs, Canada has to thank her 
Department of Agriculture, presided over by the Honour- 
able Sydney Fisher. Created in 1851 as the " Bureau 
of Agriculture and Statistics of Upper and Lower Canada," 
it ultimately became a distinct department, and after 
various changes has now become one of the most im- 
portant departments in the Canadian Government. In 
addition to the central offices for general administration 
the Department is now divided into seven distinct 
branches dealing with practically all scientific agriculture, 
namely : — 

386 



THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 

1. Experimental farms. 

2. Dairy and cold storage. 

3. Seed. 

4. Live stock. 

5. Health of animals. 

6. Census and statistics. 

7. Tobacco. 

Beyond and above other wide functions comprised 
in this list is also the charge of five other miscellaneous 
sections, namely : — 

1. Patents. 

2. Copyright and trade-marks. 

3. Archives. 

4. Public health. 

5. International exhibitions. 

The total sums spent in all departments of the agricul- 
tural administrations are derived from grants by the 
Federal government, secured by special annual appropria- 
tion acts, and appropriations by the various provincial 
governments. The Federal grants are chiefly supplied 
for maintaining experimental farms and developing large 
schemes of national importance. The appropriations 
by the various provincial governments are devoted 
chiefly to agricultural education and the maintenance of 
agricultural colleges and schools. 

Experimental Farms 
In 1884 the committee appointed by the Canadian 
House of Commons to inquire into the best means of 
developing the agricultural resources of Canada suggested 
the establishment of experimental farms. At the time of 
the report the committee stated that very little attention 
was paid by the Canadian farmer to the selection of seed 
and the proper cultivation of the soil. There was a great 
amount of ignorance as to the value of manures and their 
use in maintaining fertility, with the result that land 

387 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

cultivation was becoming less productive. As regards 
live-stock, little or no attention was given to breed, 
and owing to ignorance and the want of proper appliances 
the dairy products of Canada were of inferior quality. 
In short, the amazing fertiUty of the soil had led to a 
complete indifference as to scientific' methods, and the 
committee recommended the establishment of an experi- 
mental farm or farms to carry out investigations in all 
branches of agriculture and horticulture, and that the 
widest publicity should be given amongst the farmers 
of the Dominion to the results of the experiments carried 
out there. 

Two years later, after exhaustive inquiries as to 
experimental stations in Europe and America, an Act 
was passed providing for the establishment of a central 
experimental farm and four branch farms, the central 
farm to be located near the capital Ottawa, where it 
was to serve the provinces of Quebec and Ontario. The 
branch farms were to be distributed over the Dominion, 
the first for the Maritime provinces, the second for 
Manitoba, the third for the North- West Territories, and 
the fourth for British Columbia. 

Since that time the expansion of agriculture and the 
development of the West has outgrown the original 
arrangement, and now there are scattered through the 
country a large number of other branch farms which 
are doing excellent work in educating the residents as 
to the best means of grappling with the local conditions. 
In choosing sites for the various branch farms it has 
always been the object of the Department to establish 
them upon soil which is representative of the area with 
which they have to deal, so that their experiments will 
be for the greatest good of the greatest number. 

Thus it is that any farmer wanting information has 
at his ready disposal an encyclopaedia of the most up-to- 
date information it is possible to conceive. The advice 

388 



THE EXPERIMENTAL FARMS 

of a staff of trained scientists is available free, and the 
appreciation with which these farms are regarded may 
be gathered from the amount of correspondence carried 
on with farmers in all parts of the Dominion. 

A year after the farms were organised the niimber 
of letters received amounted to 5,000. Five years later 
over 25,000 were received and answered, and during the 
ten years between 1898 and 1907 the average number 
received annually averaged about 72,000. In addition 
to all this, over 300,000 copies of useful reports and 
circulars are sent out annually. 

The largest and most important experimental farm is 
at Ottawa. It extends over an area of 460 acres, of 
which 250 acres are devoted to experiments with crops 
in charge of the agriculturist. Cereals are allowed 
thirty-two acres, ten acres are set aside for horticultural 
experiments with fertilisers, orchards and vegetable 
grounds occupy forty-two acres. The Arboretum and 
Botanic Gardens extend over sixty-five acres and contain 
two specimens each of over 300,000 kinds of trees and 
shrubs, and about the same number of perennial plants. 
Forest belts take up twenty-one acres, grass and fodder 
plots two acres. There are thirty staff officials and about 
seventy labourers. The cost to the State is about 
80,000 dollars a year, which, considering the untold 
value to the country in general, is a reasonable 
expenditure. 

In the agricultural department there are two main 
sections, dealing respectively with : — 

1. The cultivation and manuring of the soil and the 
growing of farm crops. 

2. The breeding, housing, and feeding of farm animals. 

As regards the former, experiments have been con- 
ducted to determine the best methods of growing various 
crops, the cost of production per acre, and so forth. For 
immigrants into Canada, some of them absolutely ignorant 

389 

26— <2i37) 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

of the conditions peculiar to the new country, information 
of the kind available should be of the utmost value. 

Experiments have been carried out to find the stock- 
bearing capacity of the land, and on a 200-acre plot the 
possibilities of farming such an area with a definite 
system of cropping are demonstrated. Of equal value 
to the agriculturist are the experiments made with live 
stock at the central and other farms, which are of the 
most searching kind. Experiments in cattle-breeding 
were begun in 1889 with a herd of forty-four head, and 
include such subjects as beef production, breeding, food 
values, housing, and so on. In the department of dairy 
cattle experiments were made in breeding, the economy 
of production of milk, food values and their influence 
on the quality and quantity of the milk, and there is 
also a large section devoted to pig-keeping. All the 
leading breeds are represented at the Ottawa farm and 
experiments are continually being made to determine 
the vexed question of the greatest profit with the smallest 
outlay. 

The horticultural division of the central farm was 
organised in 1887. The testing of varieties has been, 
perhaps, the most notable work accomplished, for it is 
only by obtaining the variety most suitable to the vary- 
ing conditions that satisfactory work can be done in 
horticulture. For example, one may mention that the 
horticultural division has been testing apples until the 
number of named varieties exceed 600. It was only by 
this means that the discovery was made that Russian 
apples were hardier than any apples of American origin, 
and it was through this discovery that apples were first 
introduced into Southern Manitoba. Interesting work 
has also been done in introducing new varieties, and people 
who have raised apples from seedlings are invited to 
send in specimens of the fruit for examination with the 
object of discovering a hardy native fruit. Though the 

390 



JUSTIFIABLE STATE ASSISTANCE 

work described applies particulariy to apples, it need 
hardly be said that other fruit and vegetable culture 
has been brought to a high degree of perfection. 

The experimental work in forestry has been of the 
utmost value, proving as it does that suitably planted 
belts of trees are of great assistance to the farmer on the 
plains. For the purpose of supplying these a great 
nursery has been established not far from the experi- 
mental farm at Indian Head, and it offers young trees 
and seeds free to all farmers who undertake to comply 
with the very simple regulations laid down for the establish- 
ment of shelter belts. This work, though it has not 
made as much headway as might be expected among the 
strugghng people of the plains, still is much appreciated 
and will in time, it is prefectly certain, add immensely 
to the amenities of life, and such shelter will be regarded 
as actually necessary when mixed farming supersedes 
the present extravagant methods. 

Perhaps the most fascinating of all the sections is the 
division organised only recently for the work of testing 
and improving the culture of cereals. By means of this 
division innumerable kinds of seeds have been brought 
together from aU parts of the world to determine their 
relative value in yielding, quality of grain, etc., when 
grown side by side under conditions as nearly uniform 
as it is possible to get. By this means the farmer has 
been shown the most suitable kinds for his particular 
part of the country, and so forcibly has this been demon- 
strated that the varieties of seed have been narrowed 
down to a very small number, and are practically stand- 
ardised. So carefully are the tests carried out that it 
has been found desirable to erect in recent years a small 
flour-mill and baking apparatus to test the milling and 
baking capacities of very small quantities of wheat. 
All the new varieties produced by the experimental farms 
are closely tested for milling and baking before being 

391 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

distributed to the farmers for trial. The chemical 
division deals with all questions relating to soils, manures, 
and fertilisers, cattle food, insect pests, dairy products, 
etc. One of its duties is to report upon all the samples 
of agricultural description forwarded to farmers from all 
parts of Canada. These samples include soils, natural 
fertilisers, water, dairy products and cattle food amongst 
an innumerable number of other matters. 

In the division of entomology and botany the work 
consists of making collections of plants and insects, 
mainly of an injurious character, and in helping farmers 
to exterminate them. 

There is also a section dealing with the breeding and all 
branches of poultry work, and largely owing to its labours 
in the last twenty years fowls are becoming increasingly 
popular with small farmers. 

Branch Experimental Farms. These farms vary 
considerably in size, and are of 160 acres to 680 acres 
in extent. Recently the tendency in making new ones 
has been to keep them the smaller size. The work under- 
taken on them is practically on the same lines as that 
carried on by the central organisations, with this vital 
difference : that their duty is to study the local condi- 
tions of the district in which they are situated, and to 
devote their attention mainly to that which will be of 
the most interest to the farmers for whom they are estab- 
lished. For example, in the prairie their business is to 
make investigations as to the best soil for grain-growing. 
In Southern Alberta the branch farm at Lethbridge deals 
particularly with irrigation and " dry farming " methods. 
In Northern Alberta mixed farming and the cultivation 
of forage crops are the principal items, and in British 
Columbia fruit-growing and crops suitable for food for 
live-stock are the characteristic experiments. 

Under the Inspection and Sale Act of 1906 the whole 
of agricultural Canada is divided into an eastern inspection 

392 



HOW THE HUGE GRAIN CROPS ARE HANDLED 

division and a western inspection division. The eastern 
division consists of Ontario and Port Arthur, and 
east of the provinces of Quebec, Nova Scotia, New 
Brunswick and Prince Edward Island. The western 
division contains Manitoba, west of Port Arthur, the 
prairie provinces and British Columbia. In the Manitoba 
division the wheat is graded as follows : — 

No. 1. Manitoba Hard. 

No. 1. Manitoba Northern. 

No. 2. Manitoba Northern, 

No. 3. Manitoba Northern. 

Commercial Grade No. 4. 

Commercial Grade No. 5. 

Commercial Grade No. 6. 

Commercial Grade Feed. 

" Standard " samples are selected by a board which 
meets annually to determine the character of the 
grades which, in accordance with the act shall guide the 
Government Inspectors in grading the crop. 

The freight charge depends naturally on the distance 
from the market. From Fort William, at the head of the 
great lakes, to Liverpool is roughly nineteen cents per 100 
lbs., from Winnipeg twenty-nine cents, and from Regina 
thirty-seven cents. 

In order to deal with this huge volume of wheat, 
coming as it does from the country to great centres at 
the busiest time of the year, the wheat elevator has 
become a national institution. Let us take the case of 
Port Arthur, which is one of the great centres of the 
wheat-gathering industry. At the season of the wheat 
rush, from the farms near the railway comes an endless 
procession of waggons of all sizes carrying the season's 
crop. These in turn are emptied into the railway cars, 
specially contrived for the holding of their precious 
burden, each the size of an English pantechnicon. The 
farmer has probably sold to the wheat-buyer or middleman 

393 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

at so much per bushel, conditionally upon the wheat 
being up to sample, and he is so far secure that he knows 
he will receive a certain price should the Government 
Inspector of Winnipeg pass his wheat as being of the grade 
claimed. The inspector does his work with a long hollow 
tube, which he plunges into the car at several points. He 
mixes the samples which he has drawn, and issues his 
certificate, a copy of which goes to the farmer. After 
leaving Winnipeg, the identity of the wheat is lost, except 
for the fact that it is now officially graded. When the 
elevators at Fort William or Port Arthur are reached 
all the wheat of the same grade is shot into bins to be 
stored until it is wanted to supply the needs of a hungry 
world. The cars running into the elevator-siding are stopped 
in the shadow of the giant elevator. Nine cars at once, 
each containing about 1,000 bushels, can be unloaded in 
less than twenty minutes, and in the rush season elevators 
are kept working night and day unloading not less than 
600 cars in the twenty-four hours, and dealing with 
600,000 bushels of wheat. The wheat is run into huge 
sluices, and passed through whirling fans which suck the 
dirt from it. Chaff and the broken wheat are sucked 
along another tube and are used for making cattle food. 
The wheat is weighed and is carried to the top of the 
elevator, and it is thrown into the huge bin where it is 
stored. There it stays until the buyer claims it, the 
charge for storage being half a cent per bushel for the 
first fifteen days, and half a cent per bushel for each 
succeeding thirty days. 

At Port Arthur may be seen King's Elevator, a sort 
of wheat hospital for dealing with wheat that has been 
damaged by weather or other misfortune. It may be 
that the wheat is damp, and if it were stored in this 
condition it would heat and eventually catch fire, or a 
heavy rain-storm at an inopportune time may beat the 
crops to the ground and cover them with dirt, or it may 

394 



A WHEAT HOSPITAL 

be that wheat grown on ground which has formerly been 
used for oats may result in a mixed crop of wheat and 
oats which must be separated. 

The machinery in King's Elevator is most compHcated, 
and the wheat is run first through machinery which 
scours the grain and extracts the dirt, and also 
the oats and broken wheat go with it. No charge is 
made for this extracting, but the owner of the elevator 
takes the " screenings," as they are called, and grinds them 
up for cattle food. If wheat is damp a charge is made 
according to the degrees of moisture. For " tough " 
wheat the charge is one and a half cents per bushel, 
for damp wheat two and a half cents, and for wet wheat 
three and a half cents. The wheat runs into high wdre- 
sided chambers upon which impinge blasts of hot air. 
The time taken to dry wheat varies between two and six 
hours, and at this elevator 50,000 bushels of tough wheat 
can be dried in twenty-four hours. Damaged wheat 
may not be sold as graded wheat : it must be sold on its 
merits. 

The farmer may be paid in two ways. Either he may 
be paid after the grain is loaded on the car at his local 
station, when settlement will take place on the basis 
of the Winnipeg inspection, and the weight of the wheat 
at Fort William. This is termed " track price." On 
the other hand, he may be paid load by load as he dehvers 
grain to the elevator company, settlements being made 
on the company's grading weights and dockage. This 
is known as " street price," and is based on the Winnipeg 
price. 

The elevator industry has naturally taken a very large 
place in the social economy of the Western farmer, and 
from time to time bitter complaints have arisen as to the 
elevator companies' methods of doing business. In 
1906 a grain commission considered the farmers' griev- 
ances, and came to the conclusion that the source of the 

395 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

difficulty was the question of railway transit, and that 
with an ample supply of cars there would be little 
difficulty. 

It is easy enough to speak of putting the grain on the 
railway, but it must be remembered that only compara- 
tively few farmers are close to the main lines or even 
near a branch line. On the main line the question 
of marketing wheat is simplicity itself, but in newly- 
settled regions, some way from the railway, he is often 
handicapped by the roads and insufficiency of horses, 
and too often the hard-worked farmer spends valuable 
time when he might be preparing for the next crop in 
getting into safety the crop he has reaped. 

The Dominion Government has realised, however, as 
the railways are realising, that co-operation between 
railways, farmer and government, is the only way out of 
this difficulty. As the outlying settlements push further 
and further away branch lines are run out to meet their 
necessities, and close upon the heels of the pioneer comes 
the railway surveyor. 

With regard to the supply of cars the Manitoba Grain 
Act was passed in order to place the farmer on the same 
level as the elevator company. Any farmer desirous of 
shipping his grain on his own car is entitled to be sup- 
phed with a car on a certain date. Railway rates, 
particularly in an agricultural country, are always a 
fertile source of grumbling. The Dominion of Canada, 
however, exercises a more paternal care over the farmer 
than does the Government of the United States, and the 
position of the Canadian farmer compares very favourably 
with that of his United States neighbour in North Dakota 
and Minnesota. 



Fruit Farming 
While it is true that fruit can be grown successfully 

396 



FAR FAMED NOVA SCOTIA FRUIT 

m a great many parts of Canada, practically nothing 
is done in the way of fruit farming in either of the prairie 
provinces. The industry is confined mainly to Nova 
Scota, Ontario, New Brunswick, and British Columbia. 
The fruit gardens of Canada at present are mainly con- 
fined to the Annapolis valley, in Nova Scotia, which 
extends along the Bay of Fundy from Windsor to Digby, 
the Niagara Peninsula in Ontario, and certain portions 
of British Columbia. The situation of the Annapolis 
valley is ideal for fruit-growing, since it is separated from 
the Bay by a range of mountains called the North Moun- 
tains, and protected from the east winds by another range 
known as the South Mountains, and the soil, generally 
speaking, is admirably adapted to the needs of the fruit- 
grower. The farms, as compared with those of the 
prairie provinces, are comparatively small, and are 
generally owned by the occupiers. They extend from 
twenty to 120 acres in area, and generally are composed 
of hay land in the valley, orchards round about the 
holdings, and perhaps a certain amomit of grazing and 
woodland on the lower slopes of the hills. 

They would be ideal for a system of mixed farming, 
particularly dairying and fruit-growing, but the fruit- 
growing has proved so profitable and so much better than 
dairying that many farmers have given up the latter to 
devote themselves entirely to fruit. There are some- 
thing like 50,000 acres of orchards in the valley, and a 
great variety of fruit is grown. Apples, blackberries, 
cherries, currants, gooseberries, pears, plums, rasp- 
berries, and strawberries are all to be found, but first in 
favour with the farmer comes the apple. 

While one cannot accept unreservedly the extravagant 
claims sometimes made for the Canadian apple, it is certain 
that the very highest quality can be grown, and that al- 
though fruit trees are somewhat slow in coming to maturity 
they remain in full bearing for many more years than in 

397 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

less suitable climates. About forty apple trees are 
planted to the acre, and they do not begin to bear until 
they are from four to five years old. 

The space between the trees is utilised for other crops, 
such as corn, potatoes, roots, or occasionally small fruit. 
When the trees cover the greater part of the ground the 
regular crops are not planted, and their place is taken by 
cover crops sown in July, at the time when the fruit 
trees cease to grow. The ground is sown with buckwheat, 
clover, or some smaller crop, which has the twofold 
advantage of absorbing the plant-food and so stopping 
the growth of the trees, whilst hastening the ripening 
of the fruit. In the winter it holds the snow and so 
protects the roots from the frost, and in the following 
spring it is ploughed up and gives warmth and nitrogen 
to the soil. In Canada, as in England, the farmer has 
innumerable pests to fight against, and the spraying of 
fruit trees is almost universal. A mixture of copper 
sulphate, quicklime, and Paris green is put on three times 
a year, and if done conscientiously it is generally successful 
in protecting the trees. 

The farmer picks his own fruit, and packs and grades 
it himself before sending it to an agent for sale on com- 
mission, or else more frequently he sells his fruit to buyers 
who grade and pack it at their own warehouses. In 
some districts the co-operative movement has taken root, 
and fruit is graded and packed by the co-operative store. 
It is not easy to arrive at an estimate of the profits to be 
derived from fruit-growing, but it may be said that in a 
favourable year the average orchard, well looked after, 
should yield 100 barrels (each containing 150 lbs.) per acre 
per year. Taking two dollars as the average price per 
barrel this would give a return of something like £40 
gross per acre. 

A good many of the younger men are leaving the 
eastern fruit-growing provinces for the alluring romance 

398 



ATTRACTIONS OF ANNAPOLIS VALLEY 

of the West. Fortunes, it is true, come more easily to 
the pioneer, and the West of Canada is undoubtedly the 
place to which the ambitious man turns his eyes. At 
the same time, the Annapohs valley promises a good 
li\'ing and comparatively settled conditions of hfe to 
the immigrant, and it is possible that in a few years' time 
there will be a backwash of settlers from the West to 
this peaceful Maritime province. 

In Ontario there is more fruit culture than in any 
other province of the Dominion. 

For the most part the fruit-growing district is to be 
found in the Southern and Western parts of Ontario. 
Hardy fruit, such as apples, sour cherries, and plums, 
are gro\Mi on the east of Georgian Bay and Lake Huron, 
on the north and south shores of Lake Ontario, and the 
northern shore of Lake Erie. Grapes, sweet cherries, 
pears, peaches, and other soft fruits are gro\Mi south 
and west of Toronto, on the south of Georgian Bay and 
the east of Lake Huron. 

On the Niagara Peninsula, on the south shore of 
Lake Ontario, is a strip of land some forty miles long 
and var\'ing from one to five miles broad, bounded on 
one side by a range of hills, and on the south by Lake 
Ontario. Chmate tempered in this fashion by the hills 
and the waters of the lake is reputed to be the best in 
the province. At one time apples were gro\Mi at this 
particular part, but the warm climate was found to 
produce apples that would not keep for more than two 
or three weeks, and grape vines were consequently sub- 
stituted for apple trees. Grape vines begin to bear when 
about three years old, and in fuU bearing a good crop 
would be about four tons to the acre. Both edible and 
wine-making grapes are grown, but so far the grower 
does not seem to have discovered a \'ine which will give 
the bouquet of the continental grape. 

A strip of sandy loam in the peninsula is devoted 

399 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

almost entirely to the production of peaches. The trees 
are planted about twenty feet apart, and a very heavy 
outlay is incurred for cultivation until the end of the 
fifth or sixth year, when the orchard comes into full 
bearing. In a favourable season one might say that the 
gross return per acre would be something like 200 doUars, 
but quite half of this would have to be spent on culti- 
vation. Any immigrant who imagines that he can take 
up his 160 acres of free grant land in this favoured spot 
would find himself sadly mistaken. 

Unplanted land varies from 200 dollars to 300 dollars 
an acre. Land planted with peach trees brings 500 
dollars an acre, and in the best positions it might even 
run up to 1,200 dollars or more an acre. 

This peninsula is most attractive to the man of means 
who is seeking a profitable living combined with a com- 
fortable civilisation. The houses are large and beautiful, 
and the gardens well cared for : whilst the electric railway 
keeps the residents in close touch with the town of Hamilton. 

It is less than a quarter of a century since the first 
fruit was sent out from British Columbia, and the 
following table shows the rapid advance made in fruit 
production. 

1891 6,437 acres 

1901 7,430 ., 

1905 22,000 „ 

1910 100,000 „ 

The two great fruit districts are the Kootenay district 
and the Okanagan valley. The pioneer of fruit-growing 
in the Kootenay district was a Mr. Johnstone, a Scotch- 
man, who settled in Nelson some years ago. Mining was 
at that time in a somewhat parlous state, and Mr. John- 
stone discovered in a forest near his house an orchard of 
fruit trees which had been planted many years before by 
a ranch settler and had been completely forgotten. Mr. 
Johnstone immediately turned his mind to the problems 

400 



FRUIT GROWING IN B. C. 

of fruit culture, and has done excellent work as propa- 
gandist and practical farmer for the fruit-growing industry. 
As a rule the holdings are small, ranging from a few acres, 
and rarely exceeding sixty acres. The soil is very favour- 
able, and the whole industry depends upon the extraor- 
dinarily fine climate of British Columbia which rarely 
fails the fruit farmer except in an occasionally dry season. 
The summer temperature never exceeds ninety-four 
degrees at Nelson, and for years no lower temperature 
has been known than six degrees below zero. In some 
places the rainfall is deficient and irrigation becomes 
necessary. In West Kootenay the rainfall is about 
nineteen inches, but there is a heavy snowfall, so that the 
annual precipitation is twenty-seven inches. Any kind 
of fruit suited to a temperate climate can be grown, but 
at present, owing to the fact that transport is not suffici- 
ently organised, only the hardier sorts are sent to the 
market. 

The British market and the Australian market are 
both supplied, and it is probable that with the intro- 
duction of closer relations with Australia a large propor- 
tion of the fruit at present sent to Great Britain will 
be diverted to the Antipodes. One of the curiosities of 
market demands is shown in the variation between the 
Australian and the English market. The Australian 
demands a much smaller apple than the British buyer, 
and with a view to pleasing him the Kootenay fruit- 
grower, when growing for the Australian market, never 
thins out his fruit. The result is that a much heavier 
crop of smaller apples is grown, and some of these un- 
thinned trees, at the time of ripening are marvellous 
examples of productiveness. In the Okanagan valley 
the climate is equally delightful but not quite so moist, 
eleven inches a year being the average rainfall. This 
necessitates irrigation. 

Lord Aberdeen has a celebrated ranch at Coldstream, 

401 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

about five miles from Vernon, comprising 13,000 acres. 
He bought it in 1891 as a cattle ranch, and transformed 
it into the finest fruit farm in British Columbia. In 
1906 the ranch was turned into a limited company, and 
the orchard land now extends to about 350 acres, of which 
160 acres are in full bearing. This company, in addition 
to fruit farming, has a colonisation branch, which sells 
to English, Scotch, and Canadian settlers small holdings 
of land at a price of about 200 dollars, including the right 
to water, for which besides he has to pay extra at a rate 
of about three dollars an acre. 

The fruit is packed for market in two styles. In 
Eastern Canada the custom is to pack in barrels, the size 
of which is regulated by the Inspection Sale Act, and the 
fruit is graded according to a well-known scale which 
tells the buyer at once the size and quality of the apple 
he is buying. The system of packing fruit in barrels, 
however, has its obvious disadvantages, and the British 
Columbian system of fruit boxes, each containing a 
single layer of fruit, gets the fruit to market in a much 
better condition. 

Since the appearance of the fruit has a good deal 
to do with its marketable properties the packer is 
naturally a highly-skiUed man, who can decide with 
lightning rapidity the class to which the fruit belongs. 
The apples are packed separately, the small ones being 
placed towards the ends and the larger ones near the 
middle, so that the unpractised eye, deceived by the per- 
spective, does not detect the variation in size. Infe- 
rior fruit, that is to say, fruit which while perfectly sound, 
has no great market value, is used for canning and pre- 
serving. Sometimes it is done in the homes of the farmer, 
but mainly the trade is in the hands of canning factories. 
Doubtless as time goes on the canning industry will 
become more extensive, but at present the farmer's 
desire is to extend the fresh fruit business as far as 

402 



CO-OPERATIVE FARMING 

possible, and only to use canning for inferior fruit. 
Profiting by the example of Belgium and Denmark the 
fruit farmer of Canada has already discovered the value 
of co-operation, and it is probable that in years to 
come co-operation will be a very large feature of the 
fruit-growing business. 

Live-Stock Records 
Until within comparatively recent years, there was no 
uniform Live-Stock Record in existence in Canada. 
Various associations were in existence in the provinces, 
and books of record established, but the greater number 
of such records, and the different standards set up, 
caused much confusion and inconvenience to breeders 
and farmers. To aid in remedying this state of affairs, 
an Act to facilitate the incorporation of Live-Stock 
Associations was passed in 1900. The provisions of this 
measure were taken advantage of, to a large extent, by 
the leading associations, many of which took out Dominion 
charters. This, as far as it went, was satisfactory, but, 
with the object of extending the good work, and making 
such records a national concern, a convention of live- 
stock breeders, from all parts of the Dominion, was held 
in 1904, when the problem of organising National Records 
was discussed. As a result, an agreement was entered 
into between the Department of Agriculture and the 
various societies represented at the Convention, and, in 
the following year, a National Records Board was estab- 
lished at Ottawa. With one exception, all Record 
Associations in Canada are worked under the National 
Records system. The Board is formed of representatives 
elected by the various associations, on a membership 
basis, and to these representatives is delegated the work 
of carrying on the office. The Board meets annually to 
discuss the more important questions that arise, and 
a Committee is formed from amongst its members 

403 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

comprising what is called the " Executive Committee " 
which looks after registration matters, the management of 
the office, etc. — each member of this Committee looking 
after one class of stock. The herds books previously main- 
tained by the provincial governments, were purchased by 
the Department of Agriculture, and handed over to the 
National Board, and the Department provides office 
accommodation, and other necessaries incidental to the 
work. 

A "Live-Stock Pedigree Act," passed in 1905, which 
is now in force, provides for the formation of new 
associations, and for the incorporation, on certain 
formalities being observed ; but it is provided that 
not more than one association for each distinct breed 
shall be incorporated. Severe penalties are imposed 
on any person signing false pedigrees for registration, or 
causing such false pedigrees to be presented. The 
Department of Agriculture takes the responsibility of 
guaranteeing the authenticity of certificates issued by 
the Records Office, and generally, gives much attention 
to all matters in connection with its work, which will 
tend to make, as nearly as possible, for absolute reliability. 
The system has, in practice, worked very well. It has 
done away with the possibility of the control of records 
by close corporations ; and, by the establishment of a 
Central Board, has done away with the complications 
inevitably arising through a number of different records 
being in existence in the Dominion. The work — as is 
the case with all matters taken in hand by this depart- 
ment — is done with accuracy and promptness, and to 
the satisfaction of all concerned, and the records are 
recognised as official, not only in the Dominion but in 
other countries. 



404 



CHAPTER II 

Economic Minerals of Canada 

In attempting even a brief description of the mineral 
resources of Canada, it wiU aid clearness of vision, and 
enable the reader to walk within known bounds and 
landmarks if we indicate at the outset the scope and 
limitations of our inquiry. We purpose dealing (1) with 
the more important ores of metals, and (2) with the 
non-metaUic minerals : the respective descriptions being 
arranged in geographical order from west to east, by way 
of provinces. 

The total area of Canada, as has been said, is about 
3,750,000 square miles, two-thirds of which are practi- 
cally unexplored, except along a few main rivers and 
water routes in the north-land which have been followed 
by Indians and fur-traders. Hence, any account of the 
resources of the Dominion must necessarily be limited 
to the one-third of the country, and this only partially 
explored, investigated, and developed. For this reason 
it is impossible to estimate, even approximately, Canada's 
future mineral industry ; but judging by the extent 
and geological characteristics of the known mining areas, 
and considering the vast undeveloped regions known to 
exist in the north, the industrial possibilities of the country 
are manifestly enormous. This conclusion is driven 
home when it is remembered that, in 1886, the total 
mineral production of Canada was valued at 10,221,255 
doUars ; whereas in 1908 it reached 87,323,849 dollars. 

The prospecting of promising mineral regions is 
constantly being undertaken ; and the development of 
new mining areas is adding to the already formidable 
list of shipping mines. In the last named connection 
it may be mentioned that the Dominion Government 

405 

27— (2137) 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

in 1907 established a Department of Mines, with a view 
of aiding the industrial development of the country, by 
systematic investigation of its mineral deposits and 
immense mineralized regions. And although this organ- 
isation is of recent origin, the Mines Branch of the 
Department has already rendered valuable service to the 
mining industry by the publication of technical reports 
and bulletins. Among those recently published by the 
Mines Branch — under the supervision of Dr. Eugene 
Haanel — is a comprehensive " Report on the Mining and 
Metallurgical Industries of Canada, 1907-8," This, and 
other important monographs and bulletins on mineral 
products of current economic interest, such as iron ores, 
asbestos, mica, graphite, peat, chromite, tungsten, etc., 
constitute a reference library of technical literature 
invaluable to every business man interested in the 
commercial and industrial progress of the Dominion. 

Alluvial Gold 
Alluvial Gold : Yukon. Placer gold mining began 
in the Yukon in 1881. The main district is the Klon- 
dike region, where mining began in 1896. This field has 
an area of about 1,000 square miles, and upwards of 
seventy or eighty miles of creeks have proved productive. 
In some parts, the sands worked yielded 2,000 dollars 
per running foot, with a pay streak varying from 150 to 
300 feet wide. This was in the early days when the 
Klondike was an ideal field for the individual miner. 
That time, however, has passed, and the rich creeks 
have practically been exhausted from the standpoint 
of the individual miner. The placer miner is being 
replaced by powerful companies, with capital enough to 
establish hydraulic plants on a large scale for working 
the poorer sand and gravels. A typical example is the 
Yukon Gold Consolidated Company, Limited, who have 
constructed a ditch and pipe line forty-eight miles in 

406 



GOLD MINING 

length, and have estabUshed an hydraulic plant at the 
cost of several miUion dollars. 

Up to 1907 the two main fields of the Yukon — the 
Klondike and the Indian River — had produced some 
120,000,000 dollars, and it is very conservatively esti- 
mated that by hydraulic mining some 95,000,000 to 
100,000,000 dollars of gold could still be extracted from 
the present kno\\-n gold-bearing creeks. 

Another method which promises to yield good results 
in the near future in working auriferous gold-bearing 
gravels and sand is that of gold-dredging. Several 
attempts are at present being made in this line, and it 
is expected that this industry will soon be on a good 
working basis. A certain amount of success in gold- 
dredging has been achieved on the Stewart River, B.C. 

British Columbia. In British Columbia almost every 
stream and river has yielded more or less gold. The 
main fields in alluvial mining are the Cariboo and Atlin 
districts, where hydraulic mining operations on a large 
scale are being conducted. Moreover, some attempts 
are being made to dredge bottoms and bars of the Fraser, 
Thompson, and other rivers ; and if these prove successful 
it will materially contribute to the gold output of British 
Columbia. It is not easy to make a forecast as to the 
future of placer gold mining in British Columbia ; but 
it may be stated that the total gold produced by this 
province from alluvial sources, up to date, has been about 
70,000,000 dollars : and that the present yearly output 
is in the vicinity of 1,000,000 doUars ; so that, if we even 
consider only the present known placer deposits, there 
is no reason why this rate of production should not be 
maintained for many years to come. 

In Alberta and Saskatchewan, gold has been found 
in the sands of the Saskatchewan, Peace, McLeod, Atha- 
baska, Bow, Old Man, and other rivers ; but the North 
Saskatchewan — for sixty miles above Edmonton, and 

407 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

a like distance below — has been the chief field of opera- 
tions. These operations are limited, because they are 
mainly carried on by individual miners, and the sands 
and gravels are not very rich. It is quite possible, 
however, that this industry may develop in the future. 
Quebec. Of the eastern provinces, Quebec is the only 
one in which workable alluvial deposits have been found. 
The most important field is the Beauce auriferous region, 
which embraces the valleys of the Chaudiere, and De 
Loup Rivers, and that of the Gilbert River. Some very 
large nuggets have been found — the heaviest weighing 
seventy-one ounces. Operations are being conducted 
on these alluvial deposits ; but they are on a small 
scale. 

Gold-bearing Quartz 

In the Yukon some gold-bearing lodes have been 
discovered, but so far they have not been worked to 
any extent. 

In British Columbia there are two distinct classes of 
gold-bearing ores, viz., the free-milling ores : from which 
gold is the only metal recovered by amalgamation ; and 
the sulphide ores, which, being gold-bearing copper ores, 
are treated by smelting. 

In this province, free-milling ores are produced in the 
Nelson division of West Kootenay, and in Mc Kinney 
and Fairview camps of the Yale district. The sulphide 
ores — from which copper, silver, and gold are extracted 
by smelting — are found and worked in the Rossland 
district, and in the Boundary country ; but they are 
low-grade ores, their total metallic contents varying in 
value between 10.00 and 15.00 dollars. But this is 
offset by the immense size of the ore bodies, and the low 
cost of mining. The gold content of these ores varies 
between one and three dollars. 

In Ontario, free gold is found in the older rocks in the 
northern and western parts of the province. Numerous 

408 



THE GOLD OF NOVA SCOTIA 

gold-bearing quartz veins have been worked in the 
following regions : Lake of the Woods, Shoal Lake, 
Rainy Lake, Seine River, and various parts of the north 
shore of Lake Superior, and other places. Several 
deposits have been worked in the older parts of Ontario, 
in the counties of Hastings and Frontenac. In Ontario 
the area occupied by rocks in which gold-bearing veins 
are liable to be found is enormous, and the possibilities 
are very great. 

In Nova Scotia, the gold-bearing rocks form a broad 
belt, varying in width from ten to seventy miles, and 
extending some 260 miles in length along the Atlantic 
coast. The gold is found in quartz veins, and is for the 
most part free-milling. Mining operations have been 
so far limited to veins outcropping on the surface ; but 
it is thought that the deposits attain great depths. There- 
fore, the gold industry in this province still offers great 
possibilities. At present, the yearly production is com- 
paratively small : but it is probable that by systematic 
development of its gold deposits, more especially at 
depth, the province of Nova Scotia would make good 
showing as a gold-producing province of Canada. 

Silver 

British Columbia. Gold and silver in British 
Columbia occur in diverse ways. In addition to the 
gold extracted from the alluvial deposits all over the 
province, there are a great many veins and other forms 
of deposits of auriferous and argentiferous minerals. 
In these, gold and silver are found associated in various 
combinations with the baser metals. For instance, 
there are ores from which gold, silver and copper are 
extracted ; then there are the silver-lead ores, silver- 
copper ores, as well as " dry ores," which are ores from 
which only silver is extracted. 

Deposits of native silver and of silver sulphides have 

409 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

been found in various places in British Coliunbia, particu- 
larly in the Omineca district ; but the main sources of 
silver are the silver-lead ores of the Slocan division, in 
West Kootenay, and those found in the Fort Steele 
division of East Kootenay. Silver is also produced 
from the copper-gold-silver ores of the Rossland and 
Boundary districts, where there are immense deposits 
of low-grade ores. 

Silver ores and silver-lead ores are also found and 
worked in the Lardeau and Trout Lake district. 

In Ontario, silver ores were first mined in north- 
western Ontario, near the west end of Lake Superior. 
At one time the Thunder Bay district produced large 
quantities of silver : one deposit alone — the Silver Islet 
Mine — having produced about 3,500,000 dollars. Very 
little work is at present being done in this district, 
although the deposits are far from being exhausted. 

The deposits of silver-cobalt-nickel-arsenic ores of the 
Cobalt region, which have been recently discovered, and 
have attracted the attention of the world, are situated 
in Ontario. The possibilities of this district, as well as 
of other areas to the north of it, as producers of silver 
and nickel, cannot at present be estimated. To realise 
the importance of these finds, it is sufficient to point 
out that the production in 1908 was about 17,000,000 
ounces of silver. 

In the province of Quebec, silver is extracted from the 
pyritous ores, which are mined near Capelton, in the 
eastern townships. These ores are primarily mined as 
sulphur ores for use in acid manufacture ; but they 
contain small quantities of silver and gold, which are 
removed in the process of treatment. 

Copper 
Copper ores in Canada may be sub-divided into two 
classes, viz., ores containing copper in the native or 

410 



COPPER ORES 

metallic state, and those in which copper is found in the 
form of various sulphides. 

Deposits of native copper are not worked in Canada, 
although occurrences of such ore have been reported 
from northern regions in the basin of the Mackenzie 
River, and from places in the interior of British Columbia ; 
but nowhere in the west have they been worked, even 
in a preliminary way. 

In Ontario, on the Canadian side of Lake Superior, 
occur large areas of rocks — similar to those of Keweena 
Point, on the United States shores, in which are situated 
the celebrated deposits of native copper worked by the 
Calumet, Hecla, Tamarack, and other famous mines. 
Native copper has been found in these rocks in Canada 
at Mamainse Point, Michipicoten Island, Nipigon Bay ; 
and although they have not, hitherto, given rise to any 
weU-established mining industry, yet, it is possible they 
might do so at some future time, after exploratory work 
of a more thorough charatcer than that of the past has 
been undertaken. 

British Columbia is by far the largest copper producer 
of all the Canadian provinces. The production is derived 
from the sulphide ores mined in various districts : the 
Boundary district, the Rossland camp, and the Coast 
district being the most important. 

The Boundary and Rossland districts have been men- 
tioned in connection with gold also : for the ore is mined 
from immense deposits, containing copper and gold, 
valued at $8.00 to $15.00 dollars per ton. This low value of 
the ore is balanced by the fact that the deposits are very 
large, and can be worked very cheaply — as to cost of 
mining ; although it requires great outlay of capital to 
equip the mines and build the smelters. 

The copper ores of the Coast district come from two 
mines : the " Tyee," and the " Marble Bay." More- 
over, the copper smelter erected at Ladysmith, Vancouver 

411 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Island, treats copper ore mined in the Queen Charlotte 
Islands, and in the Whitehouse district, Yukon territory, 
where important copper deposits are also found. 

In Ontario, the nickel-copper ores of the Sudbury 
district are the sole source of the output of these metals 
in that province. These large deposits have been worked 
continuously since 1886. The ore runs from 1^ to 3^ per 
cent, copper, and about the same of nickel. 

There are in Ontario numerous other occurrences of 
copper deposits, none of which are worked at present, 
although some were at one time extensively exploited. 
Among the best known ones are the deposits along the 
north shore of Lake Huron : at Bruce mines. Echo Bay 
Rock Lake, Massey, etc., which constitute a valuable 
reserve, and which could be worked to advantage, if 
conditions were favourable. 

In 1908 the total production of copper in Canada 
amounted to nearly 64,500,000 dollars ; whereas in 1886 
it was only 3,500,000 dollars. 

In Quebec, copper is mined in the eastern townships, 
where there are large deposits of ore consisting of a 
mixture of iron and copper pyrites. This ore is primarily 
used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid ; but the 
copper is saved and adds materially to the value of the 
ore. These deposits have been worked for over fifty 
years, and are likely to last a long time yet. The rocks 
in this region are very widely mineralized, and it is pro- 
bable that by sjTstematic prospecting, and development 
work, other deposits will be worked, and become well 
established mines. 

In Nova Scotia and New Brunswick copper deposits 
have at various times attracted the attention of pros- 
pectors and miners. Occurrences are known at Cox- 
heath, in the trap rocks of the Bay of Fundy, in Antigonish 
county, in Cumberland county, and in Colchester county ; 
but none are being worked at the present time. 

412 



MINERAL RESOURCES 

Lead 

As already mentioned, lead occurs in British Columbia, 
mainly in the form of argentiferous galena or silver-lead 
ores. These occur, and are mined in many districts : 
the most important of which is known as the Slocan 
district, on Slocan Lake and River, in the interior of 
British Columbia. Other silver-lead deposits are found 
in the Ainsworth, Lardeau, Trout Lake, Revelstoke, 
lUicillewaet, and Goat River divisions, in West Kootenay; 
also in the Golden, Windermere, and Fort Steele divi- 
sions of East Kootenay. The famous St. Eugene Mine is 
situated in this last di\asion. Owing to unfavourable 
market conditions, and difficulties in transportation, 
many of the lead deposits of British Columbia have been 
abandoned for the present, but, as in other cases, they 
constitute reserves which could be drawn on at very 
short notice. 

In 1908 the total production of lead amounted to 
nearly 48,000,000 pounds, and was all derived from 
British Columbia. There are deposits of galena in 
Ontario and in Nova Scotia ; but they are not argenti- 
ferous, and the low price of lead did not warrant these 
being worked for the production of the base metal alone. 
Among the Ontario localities where lead ores occur, we 
may mention Garden River, near Sault Ste Marie; Gou- 
lais Bay, in Algoma district ; Madoc, and Lake townships, 
both in Hastings county. 

In Nova Scotia, lead ores, some of which are more or 
less argentiferous, are known to occur in Guysboro, 
Colchester, and Cape Breton county. 

Zinc 

Zinc ore, in the form of zinc blende, occurs widely 
distributed in British Columbia, and there are also 
several deposits in Ontario. 

In the first-named province, zinc ores are found in 

413 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

workable deposits in the Ainsworth division of East 
Kootenay, and in the Fort Steele division of East Koo- 
tenay. Until two or three years ago no attempt was 
made to work this ore beyond occasional shipments of 
blende to the United States ; mined usually in the course 
of working silver-lead deposits, with which the zinc 
blende occurrences are usually associated. Now, how- 
ever, the question of utilizing the zinc resources is being 
ver}^ seriously considered, and it is probable that in the 
near future zinc smelting will be an important industry 
in British Columbia. 

In addition to the above districts, occurrences of zinc 
ores have been reported from Vancouver Island, Texada 
Island, New Westminster division, Kamloops division, 
lUicillewaet division, and others. 

In Eastern Canada the presence of zinc in workable 
quantities has been recognised in various places, among 
which are the Zenith Mine in the Lake Superior region, 
and the deposits on Calumet Island in the Ottawa 
River. 

Nickel 

The province of Ontario is responsible for aU the nickel 
produced in Canada. The greater portion is extracted 
from the nickehferous-p^Trhotite of the Sudbury district, 
which was discovered during the construction of the 
main hne of the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1886. It is 
now an established fact that Canadian nickel production, 
which is over 21,000,000 pounds per year, practically 
controls the market of the world ; for the Sudbury district 
alone produces more than one-half of the world's output. 
There are, at present, two large companies working the 
Sudbury deposits, viz., the Canadian Copper Company, 
and the Mond Nickel Company. An idea of the import- 
ance of this industry may be gathered from the fact that 
these two companies alone give employment to about 
1,700 men, and that the nickel is extracted from about 

414 



THE NICKEL MINES 

350,000 tons of ore mined per year. The deposits of 
nickeliferous-pyrrhotite of Sudbury are of great magni- 
tude, and promise a supply of ore for many years to come. 
Their only serious rival in the nickel market of the world 
is New Caledonia. 

The Sudbury ores are also copper-bearing, and, as 
previously mentioned, are responsible, at present, for 
the total production of copper from the province of 
Ontario. The ore is roasted and smelted, and the resulting 
product of matte treated in a Bessemer furnace, making 
a bessemerized matte containing about forty per cent, 
nickel, and a like percentage, or less, of copper. This 
is sent to the United States for the final extraction of 
the metals. 

Lately the Cobalt district has attracted attention as a 
nickel producer. The silver-bearing ores of this region 
contain a notable proportion of nickel, which is saved 
in the smelting of the ores. In 1907 the reported 
production of nickel metal from this source was 370 tons. 

Other places in Canada where the presence of nickel- 
bearing minerals has been reported: are Calumet Island, 
province of Quebec ; Bolton township, province of 
Quebec ; and St. Stephen, New Brunswick ; but it is 
doubtful if these occurrences will prove of commercial 
value. 

Cobalt 

The silver-bearing ores of the now famous Cobalt 
district contain a large proportion of cobalt ; but the 
buyers of ore practically allow nothing for this metal. 
Should new uses and new outlets be found for cobalt, 
this region could easily supply large quantities of this 

metal. 

Iron 

Ores of iron are widely distributed throughout Canada, 
in great variety. They are smelted in the provinces of 
Ontario, Quebec, and Nova Scotia only ; but it is very 

415 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

probable that in the near future an iron-smelting industry 
will be established in British Columbia. 

In this latter province, large deposits of iron ore occur 
on Vancouver Island, and other islands on the Pacific 
coast. The deposits consist mainly of high-grade magne- 
tites, and these, in conjunction with the coal deposits 
of the Pacific seaboard, would supply blast furnaces 
under very favourable conditions. Owing to the com- 
paratively sparse population of this province, the market 
would not at present be very extensive ; but the estab- 
lishment of an iron industry in this western pro\nnce is 
only a question of time, since all the natural resources 
are present in abundance. 

In the interior of British Columbia, important deposits 
of iron ores are known at East Kootenay, and in the 
Kamloops district. 

In Alberta, should need arise, extensive deposits of 
clay iron-stone, which occur in the vicinity of the Red 
Deer River, could yield a fairly good supply of iron ore. 

In both the western and eastern parts of the province 
of Ontario, extensive deposits are known, and many are 
being worked. 

The Helen Mine, on the shore of Lake Superior, is 
being worked, and produces large quantities of hematite. 
The Atikokan iron range ; the Lake Nipigon iron deposits ; 
the large deposits of magnetic and hematite of Mosse 
mountain, north of Sudbur\' ; the magnetite deposits 
found along the line of the Kingston and Pembroke 
Railway ; and the magnetite deposits along the Central 
Ontario Railway, constitute reserves of iron ore, having 
great industrial possibilities. 

In Quebec, deposits of magnetite occur in the vaUey 
of the Gatineau, north of the Ottawa River. Bog iron 
ores are being worked in the district north of Three 
Rivers, and in some parts of the eastern townships, 
along the St. Francis River. Moreover, magnetites, 

416 



ELECTRO-THERMIC SMELTING 



containing titanic acid, are present in large quantities in 
various parts of the eastern townships, and in the 
Saguenaj- district. 

It may be noted here that Dr. Eugene Haanel, Director 
of Mines to the Dominion Government, has devoted 
special attention to the smelting of the refractory iron 
ores of Canada by electricit\-. Experiments of inter- 
national importance — now historic — ^were conducted at 
Sault Ste Marie, Ontario, in the winter of 1905-6 ; which 
demonstrated that the reduction of magnetic iron ores 
comparatively high in sulphur, but free from manganese, 
could be smelted by the electro-thermic process without 
the use of coal or coke ; but with charcoal only as a 
reducing agent. An official account of these preliminaiy 
experiments by Dr. Haanel was published by the Dominion 
Government in 1907 ; and a pamphlet describing the 
practical apphcation of these experiments on a commercial 
scale, by means of an Electric Shaft Furnace, at Dom- 
namet, Sweden, was issued in September, 1909, demon- 
strating that electric smelting has passed the experiment 
stage, and is now an assured commercial success. 

This pronouncement bj* the Dominion Government is 
of supreme importance to the provinces of Ontario and 
Quebec, where there are extensive deposits of refractory, 
magnetic iron ores, which can now be smelted economi- 
cally ; since they are mostiy in close proximity to water 
powers for the generation of electrical energy, and char- 
coal and peat as reducing agents can be obtained 
cheaply as substitutes for coal or coke fuels — ^which are 
conspicuously absent from the list of mineral resources 
of the two provinces. 

In Nova Scotia important deposits of hematite occur 
in Annapolis county ; at Nictaux and at Clementsport ; 
at Brookfield, south of Truro ; and at Londonderry ; 
besides nimierous other places from which the existence 
of more or less important deposits have been reported. 

417 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

Large deposits of iron ore, which are important from 
the standpoint of future supply, are known to occur on 
the east coast of Hudson's Bay and James Bay. Among 
these deposits may be mentioned those of the Nastapoka 
Islands, which appear to be the most important and 
consist of magnetite, hematite and jasper. 

Chromite 
The Canadian deposits of chromite, or chrome iron ore, 
occur in the serpentine belt of the eastern townships 
of the province of Quebec. It is only within compara- 
tively recent years that these deposits have been worked. 
The centre of production is Black Lake, in the township 
of Coleraine, on the line of the Quebec Central Railway. 
The annual production of chromite of this district is in 
the vicinity of 9,000 tons, containing a minimum of 
forty-five per cent, of chromic sesquioxide, this percentage 
constituting the standard. 

Manganese 

Although manganese is not extensively worked in 
Canada, very large deposits of manganese ores are known 
in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. 

The ore occurs as crystalline pyrolusite and manganite 
in limestones, also as bog manganese. 

Important deposits of the first-mentioned ore occur 
in New Brunswick, at Markhamville, King's county, and 
Jordan Mountains, Sussex county ; also at Tenny Cape, 
Hants county ; New Ross, Lunenburg county ; East 
River, Picton county — all in Nova Scotia. Of the second 
class of ore the best known occurrence is that of Dawson 
Settlement, Albert county, New Brunswick. 

Antimony 
Antimony ores are known to occur in the province 
of Quebec, at South Ham, Wolfe county ; in New 

418 



PLATINUM, TIN, ETC. 

Brunswick, at Prince William, York county, and in 
Nova Scotia, at West Gore, Hants coiuity. In all of 
these cases antimony ore is present in workable 
quantities. 

In addition to all the above metallic ores, which have 
all been found in large quantities. Numerous other 
metals occur in Canada, some of which are obtained as 
secondary products in the treatment of complex ores, 
or the presence of which has not yet been recognised in 
large deposits. But on further investigation many of 
these latter may yet be found to be of workable size and 
materially add to our country's economic resources. 
Among these may be mentioned : — 

Mercury — ores of which have been found and worked 

to some extent near Kamloops, B.C. 
Platinum — found in numerous placer gold deposits 
in British Columbia. Besides this, a comparatively 
large quantity of platinum is also extracted from the 
nickehferous ores of Sudbury, where it occurs in 
the form of sperrylite. 
Tin, Tungsten — and other rare minerals are reported 
to be present in a complex ore deposit at New Ross, 
in Lunenburg county, in Nova Scotia. Alluvial tin 
has also been found in the sands and gravels of some 
of the Klondike creeks. 
Molybdenite is knowTi to occur in many places in 
British Columbia, Ontario and Quebec, but none of 
the deposits are worked. Among the principal 
occurrences may be mentioned : King Mine, Grand 
Prairie, B.C. ; Ross to\vnship, Renfrew county, 
Ontario ; Alleyn township, Pontiac, New Ross, 
Lmienburg county. Nova Scotia. 

Coal 
Coal is by far the most important product of the Cana- 
dian mines, as the value of the yearly output of coals 

419 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

and lignites reaches thirty-five per cent, of the total value 
of- the country's mineral production. 

Coal is abundant and extensively worked on both the 
Atlantic and Pacific coasts, and its occurrence greatly 
facilitates over-sea trade and local traffic on both oceans. 

Canada's production of coal, in 1908 reached nearly 
11,000,000 tons; whereas in 1886 it was only shghtly 
over 2,000,000 tons. This is a very significant fact, for, 
to a great extent, the consumption and production of 
coal furnishes a measure by which to judge of the develop- 
ment of a country. In this connection it must be remem- 
bered that Canada consumes about as much imported 
coal as it does of domestic product. 

In British Columbia extensive coalfields are found 
and worked on Vancouver Island, also in the interior 
of the province, in the Nicola valley, as well as in the 
Crow's Nest region. East Kootenay. All these coals are 
of high-grade bituminous quality. Unworked deposits 
are known in the Queen Charlotte Islands ; in the Skeena 
region ; and in the Similkameen district. These constitute 
valuable reserves. 

In Alberta there are also vast deposits of fossil fuels 
of all qualities, from anthracite — which is extensively 
worked near Banff — to lignites. High-grade bituminous 
coals occur along the lines of the Crow's Nest Railway ; 
along the main line of the Canadian Pacific Railway. 
Good lignites are of very widespread occurrence ; and there 
are very extensive areas of yet untouched coalfields all 
along the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains. 

In the south-eastern part of Saskatchewan the deposits 
of lignite in the Souris River region are being actively 
worked. 

In the provinces of Ontario and Quebec there are no 
known coal-bearing rocks, and the greater part of the 
coal consumed in these provinces is imported from the 
United States. 

420 



THE NOVA SCOTIA COALFIELDS 

In New Brunswick a small coalfield is worked in the 
region of Grand Lake, mainly for local use. 

From the Nova Scotia fields is produced about three- 
fifths of Canada's total coal production. The main 
centres of production are in Cape Breton, in Cumberland, 
in Picton and in Inverness counties, in all of which are 
very extensive collieries. In 1908, to the total Canadian 
production of 11,000,000 tons. Nova Scotia contributed 
6,540,000 tons. 

The Mines Branch of the Department of Mines is at 
present carrying on investigations and tests of the coals 
from the various coalfields of Canada, under the direc- 
tion of Dr. Eugene Haanel, Director of Mines. These 
tests will form the subject of an exhaustive report which 
will be issued shortly. 

Petroleum and Natural Gas 
In British Columbia there have been no discoveries 
of economic value of either gas or oil. In the south- 
eastern part of East Kootenay, in the region crossed by 
the South Kootenay Pass, some drilling operations were 
conducted two or three years ago on a large scale, but 
no satisfactory results were obtained. There are reports 
of finds in the Cariboo county, but so far nothing 
authenticated. 

In Alberta a little oil has been found near the United 
States boundary, just east of the summit of the Rocky 
Mountains, but the results of drilling operations have 
been rather discouraging. 

Medicine Hat is now famous as being in the centre of 
a natural gas-bearing region. The gas horizon is struck 
at a depth of 1,000 feet, and although an enormous 
quantity has been consumed in the last three years, the 
rock pressure of the gas wells has, practically, shown no 
decrease. This ideal fuel is used for lighting, heating, 
and power purposes. 

421 

■^"—(ii-.y) 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

In the northern part of Alberta there are occurrences 
of tar sands, along the Athabasca River, which indicate 
the presence of petroleum in the underlying rocks. These 
extensive outcroppings of tar sands along the valley of 
the Athabasca would seem to indicate the possibility of 
these same beds carrying the lighter oils, if tapped in 
depth, in places where the cover of overlying rocks would 
be sufficiently thick to prevent the evaporation and the 
oxidation of which the heavy tarry materials are the 
result. 

There is little doubt that in the Athabasca valley 
there are great possibilities in gas and oil, and a great 
deal of drilling is being done in search for such deposits. 

The production of petroleum in Ontario dates back to 
1860, and practically the total Canadian production of 
crude oil comes from that province. A large number 
of " oil pools " of more or less importance are exploited, 
the principal ones being at Petrolea, Oil Springs, and 
Moore, in Lambton county, also at Merlin and Romney, 
in Kent county. 

In Ontario several gas fields are being exploited, and 
a large quantity of gas is exported by pipe lines to cities 
in the United States. There are at present two main 
producing fields : the Welland and the Haldimand. 

In the province of Quebec it is probable that large 
areas are underlaid by gas-bearing horizons, as gas has 
been struck in many places in the course of boring opera- 
tions, but beyond being put to a few local uses this natural 
resource has not yet been worked to any great extent. 

A little oil is produced in New Brunswick from a small 
field situated at Memramcook. 

Salt and Brines 
Brine springs occur in many places in Canada, but the 
only salt -producing industry of any importance is that 
of Ontario. 

422 



ASBESTOS 

In Manitoba a little salt has at times been produced 
locally from some springs which occur around the shores 
of Lake Winnipegosis. 

In the Mackenzie River basin similar salt springs have 
been noted north of Athabaska Lake. 

The real salt industry of Canada is located in Ontario, 
where extensive areas are underlaid by very thick salt- 
beds, which are exploited by wells from which the brine 
is pumped. These salt deposits, which are situated along 
the south-eastern shores of Lake Huron and on the St. 
Clair River, are practically inexhaustible. 

In New Brunswick salt springs have been exploited 
in the vicinity of Sussex and are yet worked on a small 
scale for the local market. 

Asbestos 

The largest known deposits of asbestos occur in the 
eastern townships of the province of Quebec. 

In the production of this mineral Canada easily leads 
the world. The asbestos is largely of the long fibre 
textile variety, and is much prized. In 1908 the total 
product of the asbestos industry, including long fibre, 
short fibre, and asbestic, amounted to over 2,500,000 
dollars. For a complete account of this important 
industry, the reader is referred to the report on " Asbestos ; 
its Occurrence, Exploitation and Uses," published by 
the Mines Branch of the Department of Mines of Canada. 

Although occurrences of this mineral are widely dis- 
tributed, there are only two fields which are being worked. 
One comprises parts of the townships of Thetford, Cole- 
raine, Ireland, and Wolfeston, and the other is at Danville, 
in Richmond county. 

Mica 
The principal deposits of mica are situated in the 
western part of the province of Quebec, and in the 

423 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

eastern part of Ontario. The mica produced is the 
" amber " variety, used mainly in the construction of 
electrical apparatus. 

Important mica mines are situated in the province of 
Ontario : in Templeton and Hull townships, both in 
Wright county ; in Portland and Villeneuve townships, 
in Labelle county ; aU in the province of Quebec ; in 
Loughborough township, Frontenac county. 

Occurrences of mica are also known in the Saguenay 
district, province of Quebec, and in the Tete Jeune 
Cache in British Columbia. 

Graphite 

In Labelle and Argenteuil counties in the province of 
Quebec are situated large areas of graphite-bearing 
limestones and gneisses, of which several deposits are 
worked. The main areas are in Buckingham township, 
and the graphite is of the disseminated variety. 

In Renfrew county there is a deposit of " vein graphite" 
which has been worked very extensively. 

A great many occurrences of graphite are also reported 
from Nova Scotia, but none are being worked now in that 
province. 

Corundum 

There are important deposits of corundum in the 
northern part of Hastings county in the province of 
Ontario, and these are worked extensively. The corun- 
dum is used in the manufacture of abrasive materials, 
such as emery and corundum wheels, whetstones, etc. 

Other Minerals 
It is only possible to mention the other minerals of 
economic importance, as it would take many pages to 
give even short descriptions of the deposits : — 

Iron Pyrites : Found and worked extensively in 
Ontario and Quebec. Occurrences reported from 
British Columbia, Nova Scotia and N^w Brunswick. 

424 



VARIOUS OTHER MINERALS 

Apatite : Found and once extensively worked in 
Ottawa, Labelle, Argenteuil counties, province of 
Quebec, and in Frontenac county, in Ontario. 

Building Materials : Granite, limestone, sandstone, 
marbles, brick-clays, etc., are present practically in 
inexhaustible quantities in all the provinces. 

Gypsum : Very large deposits of gypsum occur in New 
Brunswick and Nova Scotia, and many are worked 
on a large scale. In some cases the faces of these 
deposits show thicknesses of gypsum reaching 90 
and 100 feet. The product is used for manufacture 
of plaster of Paris and land plaster. 

Magnesite : This mineral is used mainly in the manu- 
facture of wood-pulp for paper, as well as in the 
preparation of certain magnesium salts. It also 
constitutes a refractory material and can be used 
in the manufacture of fire-brick. A great many 
occurrences of magnesite are known in Canada, 
and at least two of these seem to be important. 
One in Atlin, B.C., and Pine Creek is very extensive, 
and another in Argenteuil county, in the province 
of Quebec, could also be worked, should need arise. 



425 



CHAPTER III 

Canada's Manufactures 

A COUNTRY so liberally endowed with natural resources 
as Canada, and possessing also the abundant water- 
power that exists at so many advantageous points, could 
not fail to become the home of a number of important 
industries. Canadians have all along been fully alive 
to the importance of utilizing the resources at hand, 
and it is only the fact of the need of further capital which 
has prevented a much more rapid industrial development. 
Many of the industries, however, have grown beyond 
the enthusiastic predictions of those who were in former 
days most firmly convinced of the great future which 
lay before the country. 

The agricultural development of Canada has attracted 
so much attention abroad that until comparatively recent 
times little notice has been devoted to the importance 
of the manufacturing industries. In 1905, when an inter- 
censal inquiry was officially undertaken in accordance 
with the provisions of the Census and Statistics Act of 
that year, it was found that there were no less than 
15,796 industrial establishments with a total capital of 
846,585,023 dollars. That these figures have increased 
in the meantime is beyond question, and an immense 
amount of capital has entered the Dominion for invest- 
ment in industrial enterprises of various kinds during 
the past years. The number of persons employed was 
392,530, their salaries and wages amounted to 165,100,011 
dollars, while the value of products was 718,352,603 
dollars. Of the employees no fewer than 308,378, or 
seventy-eight per cent., were in Ontario and Quebec, 

426 



THE MILLING INDUSTRY 



which indicates very clearly the importance of these 
two provinces from the manufacturing point of view. 
Indeed, it may be said that the manufacturing industries 
of the country are largely centred in Eastern Canada, 
and that this is so is shown by the following table : — 



Statistics 


OF Manufactures of all Establishments in 1905. 




Estab- 




Em- 
ployees. 


Salaries 


Value 


Provinces. 


lish- 


Capital. 


and 


of 




ments. 




Wages. 


Products. 




No. 


$ 


No. 


S 


$ 


Ontario . . 


7,996 


397,484,705 


189,370 


82.415.520 


367.850.002 


Quebec . . 


4,965 


255,479,662 


119,008 


47.160.452 


219,861.648 


Nova Scotia 


909 


75,089,191 


24,237 


9,284,864 


32,574,323 


New Brunswick 


628 


26,792,698 


19.426 


6,581,411 


22,133,951 


British Columbia 


459 


53.022,033 


23.748 


11.413,315 


38,288,378 


Manitoba 


354 


27.517.297 


10,333 


5,909,791 


28,155,732 


Alberta . . 


120 


5.545,821 


2,045 


1,167,107 


5,116,782 


Prince Edward I. 


285 


1,680.541 


2,919 


445,676 


1.851.615 


Saskatchewan . . 


80 


3.973.075 


1,444 


721.875 


2,520.172 



Taking the various groups of industries, it will be 
found that the value of products under the heading of 
" food products " is highest, being 172,017,002 dollars 
in 1905, and the number of estabhshments is also the 
largest. Of the sum mentioned 56,703,269 dollars is 
represented by the flour and grist milling industry, which 
is a great and rapidly expanding one. A leading firm 
in the business claims to have a daily capacity of 17,500 
barrels (196 lbs.) of flour with a total elevator capacity 
of 5,800,000 bushels. Another concern has a daily 
capacity of 21,000 bags. Other milhng companies 
which have been established more recently are prepared 
to operate on a large scale, while the number of similar 
concerns is increasing as the new agricultural areas are 
being opened up throughout Western Canada. 

Next in order of importance comes the making of 
cheese and butter. The pioneer cheese factory promoter 
was Mr, Harvey Farrington, who started in Oxford 
county, Ontario, in 1864. His example was soon copied 
in the central part of the province, and a little later on in 

427 



THE DOMINION OF CASADA 

the more eastern sections. In Quebec the first factory 
was started at Durham, ^lissisquoi county in about 1865, 
but httle progress was made in the industry in Quebec 
until after the year 1880. \\~hile the bulk of cheese and 
butter is produced in Ontario and Quebec, a good deal 
of attention is now being devoted to daiiying in the 
Maritime pro\"inces, and there has also been a gratifying 
development in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and 
British Columbia. 

The methods of manufacture adopted in the very- 
numerous cheese factories and creameries, and also by 
individual farmers have been vastly improved as the 
result of facihties pro\"ided by the Dominion and Pro- 
vincial govenunents for gi\'ing instruction in the most 
approved style of manufacture, storage and transpor- 
tation. The establishment of cream-gathering creameries, 
central establishments whose operations can be made 
to cover a large area, has enabled many districts to take 
up buttermaking when perhaps, owing to hmited milk 
production, a cheese factor\* could not be adequately 
supported. 

A trade of great importance, and to the province of 
British Columbia in particular, is the canning of salmon 
for export. The pack each year is enormous, and the 
introduction of machinery of late has been a marked 
feature. It has been said that one might visit a good 
many factories or similar institutions in any part of the 
world without finding such an array of machinery- as in 
the British Colimibian canneries. The salmon are taken 
from the boats by a huge conveyer to the inside of the 
building where they are placed in a machine fitted with 
an intricate arrangement of kiuves and cutters by which 
thousands of fish are dealt with hourly. The other 
machinery used in the process has been so perfected that 
it may now be claimed that after the fish leaves the 
boat all handling of it ends. 

428 



CANNING FACTORIES 

The business of canning lobsters is carried on princi- 
pally in Nova Scotia, where there are 236 licensed can- 
neries, Prince Edward Island, 203 ; New Brunswick, 190 ; 
and Quebec, 94. As a commercial commodity the 
lobster occupies the first place in the fisheries of the 
Maritime provinces ; in 1907 there were some 8,660,550 lbs. 
preserved. 

Many factories where the canning of fruits, vegetables 
and meat is extensively carried on have been established, 
the majority being in the province of Ontario. Large 
quantities of apples, peaches, raspberries, strawberries, 
pears and plums, as well as tomatoes, beans, Indian com 
and other vegetables are grown for packing purposes, 
and the goods are exported to many distant markets. 

Slaughtering and meat-packing, and sugar-refining, 
are other leading industries imder the same heading of 
" food products." 

The Canadian lumber industry ranks second as regards 
the value of products which amounted, in 1905, to 
109,500,970 doUars, and it employs the largest number 
of wage-earners (77,968). The export of forest products 
at the time of Confederation amounted to about thirty- 
five per cent, of the total, and the industry has aU along 
been one of the greatest value and importance to the 
coimtry. Factories for the manufacture of household, 
school and office furniture, organs, pianos, mouldings, 
doors, sashes, blinds, woodenware, and many other classes 
of goods into which lumber enters, have been established 
in the different provinces, and the machinery employed 
is of a varied and ingenious character. For the pro- 
duction of wood pulp, chemical and mechanical, there 
are twenty-two factories with a total capital of 11,164,768. 
The manufacture of carriages and waggons, railway cars 
and other vehicles is carried on extensively and is an 
industry which is bound to assume greater importance 
in the immediate future. 

429 



: : Mixiox OF caxai 






- ^\>. 



4oC' 



mess ^sst ssssL. 

rmils iiL ntmnfe j[^Rer us JL ^lovs. Scotia, as: nr QteSesr, 
G¥^pe or Omnrm. tmf Tirtf ^gyrfr nr ^?iew^ ^nnswids: anr 

'\tffmTT7 ns 

Ijte :nTiij. imnnTTr oad: or 'ocmints 3v" diu DmnunuiL 
(jtivraiuTtviTrT: nr jctt itht sess. im 'iig- IS88 ^vas 
E.9^.-2l^jJS TTrtTar*^ •yfnrrT "w^ -na»fe^ rm :^ ilikrws — 



il.ii^t.JSl^ 



!:^i-fw ^ :s rhfr rpmrfr if t&e rsiwaM amscniciimi oirw Jsamg: 
an, tiiEr TinMf ^iwlIl 31 aumuajzon imi iie: lanseaneur 
fariiffrng: ipsaatnms. sa ~na.r iiL ^siuinnias jaaimrT ir irnn 
mtf 3EeL rras: sCdL TH her M t ip n i- e ff- It TTTgT T rhtH-ffi rnTF!-. 
be ■a.ipiv issnned :iiar die Iran ami sesL jumsGrr it rher 

rfi;^ it nay; . i jnTTR^ itt rhtf tKSt. 

A. ftrrym-h ir die JUmST^ 11 wrnrrr Cmacaail TnticPTS^ 
&a2He WCUL TtTHrmt rrmTai -smfr is rhe •n^TniTrn '- n iT !- at: 
■ifii iirniinmi mni^nems 'It vam ms kmcf^: Stav^ tmf 
hg-arrrrfT ipparanis JIB tl^tr rnrrmff mr in cnnaciEsame 

Br tiffie manntai^niTT*- tji: li^jile- rahni-.?^, therf v venir. in 
IHBE. nu iiewe: dmn 55.£II ' • -rs ^nnioved:. die 

'vsdiiB or die gmrinris bssii^. -^-^u- . . - -1- .jilars. iil incr^Ese 
of Ifi.Siff.liBH TniTnT^ r\7ier die liear^f iir 1966. Huse 
ini6isniES jie 'n&I ^csbiisiiBi, tTni ruaducis or die tadi- 
tmiES eaiicnr x ngn jeguxarimL TTie iT^pTru esnniayed: 
nr die HnaTrmTHTmrer or levErher ami iis nmaied pratimns 
i&27,flK,3S<£QiIaES m SSL ^smhiismnKiES. Hlft oi which 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

are devoted to turning out boots and shoes and supplies 
for that branch of industry. There are in addition a 
number of factories where saddlery, harness, bags, etc., 
are manufactured. 

In the paper and printing trade there are over 600 
establishments employing some 19,000 persons. The 
brewing and distiUing trades and the manufacture of 
tobacco are centred for the most part in Ontario and 
Quebec, and show a large increase in the value of their 
products in recent years. 

The production of Portland cement has grown very 
rapidly within the past few years, the figures for 1904 
were 967,172 barrels of the value of 1,338,239 dollars, 
while those for 1908 were 2,666,333 barrels, valued at 
3,709,954 dollars. The total consumption of Portland 
cement in 1908, including both Canadian and imported 
cement, was 3,134,338 barrels (of 350 lbs, net), and the 
demand wiW. be an increasing one. In the year mentioned 
there were twenty-three operating plants with a total 
daily capacity of 27,500 barrels, distributed as follows : — 
One in Nova Scotia using blast furnace slag, one in Mani- 
toba making only Portland cement, three in Quebec, 
two in Alberta and one in British Columbia, using lime- 
stone and clay, and fifteen in Ontario, in the majority 
of which marl is used. A good deal of capital has been 
invested in the cement industry and other plants are in 
course of erection. 

The manufacture of carbide of calcium, metallic 
roofing and flooring, abrasive goods, cooperage, rubber 
goods, etc., are successfully carried on and in some 
instances the trades have assumed considerable 
dimensions. 

No reference to the manufactures of Canada would 
be complete without mention being made of the Canadian 
Manufacturers' Association, an incorporated body having 
its head office at Toronto and branch offices at other 

432 



THE MANUFACTURERS' ASSOCIATION 

great business centres throughout the county, viz. : 
Montreal, Quebec, Winnipeg, Vancouver and Hahfax. 
This body watches over the special interests of the various 
manufacturing industries and the proceedings at its 
Annual Congress attract wide attention. 



433 



CHAPTER IV 

Fisheries 

This is one of the most important natural resources 
of the Dominion, providing employment for a large popula- 
tion, and when it is said that the value of the catch of 
fish (including seals) during 1908 was over 25,000,000 
dollars, and that the capital invested in the industry 
is 15,000,000 dollars, little more is needed to show that 
Canada has an enormous asset within her territorial waters. 
With a coastline on her Atlantic provinces of over five 
thousand miles, some on the deeply indented and 
island-studded Pacific coast, not to mention the 220,000 
square miles of fresh water in her many great lakes, 
it may be surmised that the Dominion possesses perhaps 
the most extensive fisheries in the world. The fishing 
fleet during the year mentioned consisted of 1,414 vessels 
and nearly 40,000 boats, and the number of men engaged 
was over 70,000. There are, moreover, many persons 
engaged in canneries and the preparation of fish for the 
market, and including these it is estimated that the 
total of those directly employed is no less than 85,000, 
exclusive of the coopers, net and rope makers, boat 
builders and others indirectly identified with the industry. 

Nova Scotia stands first among the provinces in the 
fishing industry, followed by British Columbia, New 
Brunswick, Ontario, Quebec and Prince Edward Island, 
while the value of the catch in Manitoba and the district 
of Keewatin, as well as in Saskatchewan, is not by any 
means inconsiderable. 

Salmon, lobsters, cod, herring, mackerel, halibut and 
whitefish are the leading commercial fishes, but large 
quantities of many other varieties are obtained. 

No effort is spared by the Government to assist and 

434 



1; p!---' ■ 



-r»!' 




MAKINI-: AND I- 1 SI 1 1' K' 1 1- S DI'.I'AUTMICNT 

cm (iiii.Lf^c llif iiidiishy, .111(1 .IS cvidciKc ol lliis il may he 
nil-Ill lolled lli.il Mil- Idl.d (-xpclidll IIK- ol llic ( oiil i(illlii|; 
dcp.irlm.'iil was (tvcr aS(),(M)(» (L.llais in I^K>H llif last 
ycai lor whit h rij^uics aif availahlf ( )l Iliis smii 'i'l!i,(i(n 
dolLilS I f|)l fSciils I lie aiiiolinl dcvolcd lo llic l*lolc(lloil 
St'lA'lCf aloilt'. Ill wllli II llinlcril vessels ale eiii| iloy''''. 
six i)alrolliii/; llie AllaiilK and (lull ol Si. I.awience, 
live on III!' Tat ilh' eoasl . one on llie (licat Lakes and 
oiu' on L.ikc VVmnipef^. 

To cncoiiiiifj;!' Ilu' developineiil ol llie se;i lish(>ri('S .'ind 
i\\c |)uildin^' ol lishing vossols, boiinlies ure |);iid lo Hie 
exieni ol aboni I(S(),()()0 dolhiis, under 1 he ;iiilliorily ol llu> 
lK'e|) S(';i JMsiieries Ad. The bounly lor lf)()8 w;is distri- 
buled 11 1 )( til I lie I ol lowing basis: — Vessels: The owners o I Die 
vessels eiililled lo icccivt' bouiily shall be paid one dollar 
|)(M' r(>|.^uslered Ion, |M"ovided however thai Ihc payinenl 
lo llie owner ol any one vessel shall nol exceed ei/^dily 
dollars, and all vessel lishenuen enlilled lo receive bounly 
shall be paid Ihc sum ol seven dollais, Iwenlylivc ceuls 
each. Hoals : iMshcrnK-n eiif.;a}^M'(l in lishiug in boals, 
who shall also have complied wilh Ihc re|.^Milalion eiililliu|.,' 
Ihem lo receive bounly, shall be paid Ihc sum ol Ihree 
doll. LIS, ninety cents each, and Ihc owners ol fishing 
boats shall be paid one dollar per boal." The number of 
claims |)aid during Ihe year was 13,841, an increase ol 
tS48 ovi'r the previous year. 

The work j^erformed at Ihe various Marine HiologicaJ 
Stations at St. Andrews (New Hrunswick), Departure 
Ha.y (near Nanaimo, British Columbia), .and on (n;orgian 
Bay (the (ireat Lakes Station), is generally acknowledged 
by those in a j)osition lo judge to bi' of exccn-ding v.due 
.md the equipmi'nl in each case is of an elaborate 
character. 

An important jihase of the work carried on is that 
connected wilh Ihe Ihirly-seven fish-breeding establish- 
ments, the aggregate ou1|miI of which during \^)0H wa.s, 

435 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

682 millions of fry of various kinds. Experts have also 
been engaged from time to time to advise and report 
upon oyster culture, deep sea drifting for herring, 
herring curing, steam trawling, and other subjects of 
similar importance to the development of the industry. 

Among the fishes interesting to sportsmen pecuhar 
to the country must be mentioned the ouananiche 
(wah-nah-nish, or winninish), the maskinonge, the 
speckled or brook trout, the black bass and Black Sea 
bass. 

The first named is a member of the salmon family and 
is commonly spoken of as land-locked salmon. It is 
found in Lake St. John and the numerous rivers in the 
Saguenay region which Hes on the north shore of the 
St. Lawrence. The game qualities of the fish have been 
well described by a writer in the Quebec Chronicle in 
the following terms : — " In proportion to their size, these 
ouananiche are the gamest fish that swim. They are 
peculiar to Lake St. John and its tributaries ; but hook a 
respectable ouananiche in the boiling waters of the Grand 
Discharge, and you have entered upon a fight as different 
in comparison with other fish, as is that with a dark- 
coloured trout hooked in the heaviest rapids, compared 
with the half-hearted struggle of a dainty fingerhng in a 
crystal lake. In proportion to his avoirdupois, he can 
do more tackle-smashing, pound for pound, than any fish 
that swims. His leaps are terrific ; he can give a black 
bass long odds, and then show him points in high 
jumping." 

The maskinonge, though in many respects superior 
to the pike, bears a resemblance to that fish and often 
attains a weight of seventy-pounds. It is popularly 
known in Canada as the " lunge," and is to be found in 
the rivers and lakes in the western portion of Quebec, 
among the Thousand Islands of the St. Lawrence and in 
some of the rivers and lakes of Ontario, 

436 



FISH OF THE PACIFIC 

Sass is found in abundance in the Maritime provinces 
and in portions of Ontario and Quebec, and is an object 
of the greatest interest to the sportsmen of Eastern 
Canada. 

If the salmon fishery in the river estuaries, and the seal 
fishery, which is carried on some distance from the shore, 
are excepted, the fishing industry of the Pacific coast 
may be said to have received but httle attention in times 
gone by, although undoubtedly it offers great scope for 
development. More attention is being devoted to it and 
^^'ith the advent of capital it will certainly reach large 
proportions. Halibut, black cod, candle fish (oolachan), 
anchovy, smelt, herring and other marketable fishes 
are to be found in great numbers. 

The outstanding feature of the British Columbia 
fisheries is the remarkable run of salmon which takes 
place annually up the rivers. These salmon belong to 
seven different species, the four principal being the 
sockeye, quinnat. cohoe and steeDiead. The first 
named is of the greatest economic ifnportance and is 
the one on which the well-kno^vn canning industry 
largely depends. The fish swarm to the mouths of the 
rivers during the spawning season in incredible numbers, 
and in their efforts to get up stream many of them are 
forced on to the banks. The industry of canning salmon 
for export has attained great importance and, properly 
regulated, will continue to contribute greatly to the wealth 
of the province of British Columbia. 



437 



"O 



INDEX 



Abercromby, General, 15 

Aberdeen, Lord, 402 

Abraham, Plains of, 1 7 

Acadia, 3 ; French claim aban- 
doned, 19 

Adams, John, 107 

Agriculture, Department of, 386, 
387, 403, 404 

, Minister of, his powers and 

duties, 207, 386 

, Colleges for, 288 ; women's 

institutions for, 295 ; experi- 
mental farms, 387 

Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of, 11 

Alabama, The, 60 

Alaskan Boundary Question, 117, 
sqq. 

Alberta, 79, 80, 319, 322, 329, 365, 
371, 373, 407, 416, 420, 428; 
grain exports of, 335 ; agricul- 
ture, production of, 377 

Southern, described, 79 sqq. 

" Alberta Red " wheat, 378 

Albion, New, 2 

Algoma Central Railway, 352 

Algonquin, Indians, 4, 145 ; 
National Park, 367 
" All Red " Service, cost on 
Pacific side, 355 

Alluvial Gold, 406 

Alverstone, Lord, 119 

American, Trade restricted, 27 ; 
Civil War, 44 ; Civil War ended, 
51 ; Immigrants, 132 ; Federa- 
tion of Labour, 163 

Amherst, General, 15 

Angell, Hon. James B., 116 

AnnapoUs, 3, 10, 368, 397, 399 

Anticosti, 2, 22 

Antimony ores, 418 

Apatite, 425 

Appalachian Highlands, The, 
357 

Arch, Joseph, 164 

Arnold, General, 23 



Asbestos Industry, 423 

Ashburton Treaty, 43 

Assiniboia Company founded, 
64 

Assiniboian River, 358 

Associates, The Hundred, 4 

Athabasca, Landing, 79 ; River, 
358, 360, 422, 423 ; Valley, 422 

Atlantic Cable, 42 ; and St. 
Lawrence Railway, 302 ; Low- 
lands, 359 

Austraha, and the " All Red " 
Steamships, 353 ; exports from, 
354 ; imports to, 354 ; friendly 
relations of with Canada, 354 

Aylesworth, A. B., K.C., 120 

Bagot, Sir Charles, 117 

Baldwin, Robert, 34 

Banking System, 257 ; legislation 
affecting, 259 ; Circulation 
Redemption Fund, 261 ; pro- 
gress of, 264 

Bank Act, Amended, 258, 260, 
261 ; Provisions of, 262, 263 

Barge Canal Scheme abandoned, 
342 

Batiscan, 346 

Bayard, Hon. Thomas F.. 116 

Biloxi, 11 

Blood Indians, 149 

Bond Head, Sir Francis, 34 

Bonnington Falls, 376 

Borden, R. L., on reciprocity 
within the Empire, 130 

Boscawen, Admiral, 15 

Bouquet, General, 21 

Bourassa, Henri, on Self- 
Govemment, 131 

Bow River, 79 ; Cascade, 366 

Branch Experimental Farms, 392 

Brandon, 74 

Bras d'Or Lakes, 341, 368 

Breda, Treaty of, 5 

Brine Springs, 422 



439 



INDEX 



British American League, 45 

Columbia. 43, 54, 55, 312, 

317, 324, 331, 348, 358, 393, 
408. 413, 428, 432.434; pro- 
vince described, 9 1 sqq. ; Labour 
legislation. 176; franchise, 217 ; 
Sessional Indemnity, 224 ; 
growth of population. 353, 373, 
393 ; cUmate. 364 ; yield of 
gold in rivers. 407 ; Copper ore. 
411 ; Salmon Canneries Act, 
428 ; Fishing industry, 437 

British North America Act (1867), 
54-56. 192. 220, 221 ; powers 
conferred on Dominion Govern- 
ment, 225-227 ; relating to 
banking, 257 ; declaration on 
taxation, 269 ; educational 
provisions, 281 

■ Preferential Tariff, 272 

Brown, George, 46. 47. 52 

Hon., on annexation, 

126 

T. S., Dr., 35 

Buffalo and Lake Huron Railway, 

304 sqq. 
Building materials, 425 
Burgoyne. General. 24 
Burke. Edmund, on Cemadian 

question, 20 



Cables, mileage of, 352 

Cabot, John and Sebastian, 1 

Calgary, 79. 84 ; development of, 
186 ; advantages of, 317 

Calhdres, 9 

Campbell, Sir Cohn, 38 

Canada, boundaries of (in 1763), 
20 ; Upper. 25 ; Lower, 26 ; 
annexation to America de- 
scribed, 126 ; area, 357, 405 ; 
boundaries, 357 ; wheat pro- 
duction, 377 ; metallic ores, 
419 

Canadian Atlantic Railway, early 
history of, 307 ; passenger in- 
crease, 308 

Independence, English 

views on, 44 ; Indians. 145 ; 
Magazme rate. 350 ; Manufac- 
turers' Association, 432 ; Paper, 
the, 108 ; rivers, characteristic 
of. 359 



Canadian Northern Railway, 319, 
333 ; charters granted to, 320 ; 
construction of branch hnes, 
321 ; transcontinental lines, 323 ; 
rapid development of, 323 ; 
further extensions, 324 ; trou- 
bles in Western Canada, 326 ; 
progress in 1909, 327 ; great 
prospects for, 329 

Pacific Railway authorised, 

56, 59, 342, 352, 414 ; terminus 
of, 184 ; early difficulties. 312, 
313; subsidies for, 314; 
prosperous record of, 315 ; land 
grant to, 315 ; total mileage of, 
316; great irrigation block, 317 ; 
advantages of, 319 ; elevators 
owned by, 335 

Canal systems, importance of; 
338 ; minor systems. 34 1 
Government interest in. 343 
The Canal Company. 343, 344 
commercial advantages, 345 

routes, 341 

Canning industry. The, 428, 429 
Cape Breton. 10, 20. 43, 202 ; 

exchanged for Madras, 1 1 
Island, 341, 368 

Levrard, 346 

Card-money. 7 
Cariboo. The. 359 
Carleton, General. 22. 23. 141 
" Carnarvon terms," The, 57 
Caroline, The. 35 

Cartier, Sir George, 47; Jacques. 

2 
Cassiar, 359 
Cattle breeding, 390 
Cascade or Coast Range, The. 365 
Catchment areas, 370 
C^loron, Captain, claims Ohio 

Valley, 11 
Census (1910), 178 
Central Vermont Railway, 307 
Chaleurs, 15 

Chamberlain, Rt. Hon. J.. 116 
Champlain. Samuel. 3 ; death of. 

14 

Lake, 14, 16, 358 

Charles II. 6 

Charlottetown. 22 

Chatham. Earl of. 15, 23 

Cheese and Butter Industry, 427 

Chinook winds, 102, 363 



440 



INDEX 



Chromite, deposits of, 418 

Churchill, Fort, 99 

Clergy Reserves Dispute, 33 

Clut, Bishop, 104 

Coal, 370, 419, 420 

Cobalt district, 415 

Colbert, 5 

Colbome, Sir John, 34 

Colonial Conference (1907), 356 

Columbia, Mt., 360 ; river, 358, 
360 

Confederation, 46, 49, 50, 51 

Conference, North American, 369 

Conservation, Canadian Com- 
mission of, 369-372 

Consolidated Elevators Co., 335 

Constitutional Act, 26, 200 

Constitutional History, four 
epochs of, 198 ; establishment of 
regular government, 198 ; 
United Empire Loyalists, 199 ; 
local government established, 
201 ; poUtical rights granted, 
203 ; experience of self-govern- 
ment, 203 

Cook, Captain, claims N.W. Coast, 
24 

Copper Ores, 410 ; total pro- 
duction of, 412 

Coppermine River, 63, 358 

Comwallis, defeated at Yorktown, 
24 

Cortereal, Caspar, 2 

Corundum, 424 

Croix St., 3 

Crown Lands, free grants of, 239 
sqq. ; payment for, 240 ; terms 
for acquiring provincial, 24 1 

Culture of Cerealc, 391 

Cumberland House, 64 

Currency, primitive methods of, 

264 ; Acts for coin valuation, 

265 ; issue of bank notes, 266 ; 
in the provinces, 267 ; New 
Currency Act, 268 ; branch of 
Royal Mint established, 268 

Customs, Minister of, 209 ; powers 
of, 276 

Tariff, Provisions of, 272, 

276 

Taxation. The Depart- 
ment of Customs, 269 ; duties 
on goods, 270 ; seizure of goods, 
271 ; British Preferential Tariff, 



Customs — {cont. ) 

272 ; entry of goods under, 
327 ; Itermediate and General 
Tariffs, 274; goods exempt from 
duty, 276, 278, 279; Franco- 
Canadian conventions, 277 ; 
asaflfecting tourists, 280 

Dairy produce, demand for, 383 

Dale, Sir Thomas, 4 

Dalhousie, Lord, 31 

Dall, Mr., 118 

Dauphin, 320, 323, 327 

Davidson, Smith & Co., 335 

Davis, John, 2 

Dawson, Dr., 118 

Deep Sea Fisheries Act, 435 

Deep water navigation, 340 

Defence. The militia, 242 ; 

Royal North-West Mounted 

Police, 247 
De Lewis, General, 18 
Demands of Labour Party, 171, 

172 
De Monts, Sieur, 3 
Denonville, Marquis of, 7 
Departments of State, 206 
Departure Bay, 435 
Detroit, 9, II, 27 
Diamond Cape, 180 
D'Iberville, Lemoine, 63 
Diplomacy, British, 106 sqq. 
District Labour Council of 

Toronto, formed, 166 
Dominion, The, created, 54 ; 

Trades Congress, 163 ; Lands 

Act, 234 ; 

Atlantic Railway, 318 

Franchise, 214 ; quahfi- 

cations for, 215 ; in Manitoba, 
Saskatchewan, Alberta, 216; 
in British Columbia, 217 

Dominion Lands, situation of, 
227 ; townships, 228 ; home- 
stead regulations, 229 ; appli- 
cation for, 234 ; term of lease, 
238 ; School lands, 239 ; 
Hudson's Bay Lands, 239 

Dorchester, Lord (seeCarleton), 26 

Douglas, Fort, 64 

Drake, Sir Francis, 2 

Draper, Chief Justice, 66 

Drummond, The Hon. Sir Geo.. 
351 



441 



INDEX 



Dual Premiership, The, 46 

Duck Mountains, 70 

Duffield, General, 118 

Du Guast, Pierre, 3 

Duquesne, Fort, 15 

Duluth, 340, 346 

Dundas, 374 

Durham, Lord, quoted, 31 ; 

appointed Governor-General, 35, 

report on Canada, 36. 
Duty on goods, 270 

East Kootenay, 410, 420 

Echo Bay, 412 

Economic minerals, 405, 424 

Edmonton, 83, 84, 322, 332, 407 ; 
population of, 185 ; its situation, 
186 ; Canadian Pacific Railway 
in, 325 

Education, compulsory, 281 ; 
stages of, 281 ; schools of 
Ontario, 282 ; grants to public 
schools, 282 ; realisation of 
value of, 283 ; rural education, 
284 ; attempts to improve rural 
schools, 285 ; consolidated 
schools, 288 ; training children, 
289; agricultural colleges, 291, 
292 ; women's institutions, 295 ; 
Universities, 295 sqq. ; Toronto 
University, 296 

Electrical Development Company, 
374 

Elevators, Wheat, 394 sqq. 

Elgin, Lord, Governor-General, 38 

Emerson, 74 

Empire Elevator Co., 335 

English Government established, 
10 

Erie, Lake, 20, 358, 399 

Estevan, 76 

" Evangeline, Land of," 368 

Experimental Farms, 73, 387 ; 
distribution of, 388 ; cattle 
breeding at, 390 ; most attrac- 
tive section of, 391, 392 ; 
Branch Farms, 392 

Falkland, Lord, 38 

Family Compact, " The," 33, 35 

Farming, colleges for, 288 ; in- 
stitutes, 294 

Farms, Branch, 292 ; Experi- 
mental, 387-392 



" Father of Confederation," The, 48 
Federation, constitutional side 

of, 202 
Federal Union, The, 203 

grants for agriculture, 387 

Fenian raids, question of com- 
pensation for, 115 

Finance, Department of, 207 ; 

Minister of, 207 
Fisher, Hon. Sydney A.. 82, 386 
Fisheries, Privileges, 114 ; 370 

Question, 114 sqq. 

Fishing Industry, 434, 436 ; 

Government help for, 435 
Fixon, John Arthur, quoted, 81 
Florida, East, 22 ; West, 22 
Forbes, General, 15, 16 
Forest growth. Preservation of, 

370, 371 
Forests and Waterways, Select 

Committee of, 371 
Fort WilHam, 333, 393, 395 ; 

grain exports, 335 ; elevators at, 

394 
Franciscans, treatment of, 19 
Frankhn, Dr., 106, 107 
Eraser, Hon. Christopher, 175 

River, discovered, 63 ; 348, 

358 

Free letter carrier service. The, 

351 
Free Trade adopted in England, 59 
French West India Co., 6 
Major General, Sir George 

Arthur, 248 
Frobisher, Martin, 2 
Frontenac, Comte de, 7, 242 

fort, 8 ; capture of, 16 

Fruit farming, 396 ; ground for, 

397 ; utilization of space, 398 ; 
rapid advance in, 400 

British and Australian 

market, 401 ; packing for, 402 

Fundy, Bay of, 3, 357, 358 

Fur Trade opened to all comers 

(1859), 65 
Fushimi, Prince, 251 

Gage, General, 21 
Galissonniere, Governor, 11 
Gait, Mr. (afterwards Sir Alex- 
ander), 45 
" Garden of Canada," The, 367 
Garry, Fort, 65 



442 



INDEX 



Gasford, Lord, Governor-General, 

32 
Gaspe, 15 

General Tariff, 272 sqq. 
George III, 22 
Georgian Bay, 367 

Canal, 342, 376 

Ghent, Treaty of, 29, 114 

Gilbert Plains, 327 

Glengarry, county, settlement of, 

27 
Gold-bearing quartz, 408, 409 

Mning, 370, 401, 407 

Range, The, 360, 365 

Goods duty free, 278, 279 
Gourlay, Robert, 33 
Governor-General, authority of, 

189, 192 ; power of veto, 190 ; 
dispute regarding, 191, 192 

Graham, Inspector, on Canadian 
Indians, 198 

Grain, number of vessels carrying, 
336 

Grand Junction Railway, 306 

Grand Trunk Arrangements Act 
(1862), 303 

Georgian Bay Railway, 

306 

Pacific Railway, begin- 
nings of, 329 ; Government aid 
for construction, 330 ; terminus 
of, 331 ; bright prospects for, 
333, 334, 352 

■ • Pacific Town and De- 
velopment Co., 332 

Railway, 42, 59, 301, 

331, 342 ; amalgamations, 303 ; 
formation of, 307 ; early his- 
tory of, 307 ; increase of passen- 
gers, 308 

Grant, President, 118 

Graphite, 429 

Great Bear Lake, 95, 358 

Fish River, The, 358 

Lakes, The, shipping on, 

334 ; tonnage of vessels on, 

335 ; navigation on, 337 ; 
Government interest in, 338 

North Western Telegraph 

Co., 352 

Slave Lake, The, 358 

Western Railway, Amal- 
gamation of, 305 ; Terms of, 
306 



Grenada, 22 

Guadeloupe, Island of, 20 
Guelph, 374 

Agricultural College, 288 ; 

departments of, 288 ; The 
Macdonald Hall, 289 ; admis- 
sion into, 290 ; Husbandry 
department, 290 ; research 
work, 291 

Gulf of St. Lawrence, The, 357 

Haanel, Dr. Eugene, 417 
Habitant, The, 137 sqq. 
Haldimand, Admiral, 24 

Sir Frederick, 141 

Halifax, city founded, 12 ; natural 

harbours of, 183 ; population, 

183 
Halifax Gazette, first newspaper, 

12 
Hamilton, 332, 375 ; situation of, 

181 ; fruit distributing centre, 
182 

and North-Westem Rail- 
ways, 306 

Cataract Co., 374 

Inlet, 96 [432 

Hardware goods, Manufacture of, 
Hard Wheat, 70 

Harvey, Sir John, 38 

Heame, Samuel, 63 

Henry VII, 1 

Hespeler, 375 

High Commissioner, The, 193 ; 
appointment of, 194 ; dignity 
of title, 195 ; duties of, 196 

— — Office of, widespread in- 
fluence of , 197 

Hinks, Sir Francis, 259 

Hochelaga (Montreal), 2 

Hodges, James, 310 

Holburne, Admiral, 14 

Homesteads, appUcation for, 229 
conditions for a patent, 229 
privilege of homesteading, 231 
acquisition of Purchased 
Homesteads 232 ; payment for, 
236 

Horses, breeding, 384, 385 

Howe, Lord, death of, 161 

Hudson's Bay, 357, 358, 359, 418 

Company, founded, 6 ; 

Treaty rights acquired, 9 ; 
early history, 62 ; its charter. 



443 



INDEX 



Hudson's Bay Company (cont.) 
62 ; combines with N.W. Com- 
pany, 65 ; discussed in English 
Parliament, 67 ; surrender 
completed, 67 

Huron, Lake, 336, 358. 399. 412 

Indians, 4, 145 

Ile-aux-Noix, 16 

lie Royale, 10 

Imperial Act of Union, 37 ; Free 
Trade Act (1846), 41 

Indians, Canadian, 145 sqq. 

Independence, Treaty of, 106 sqq, 

Industrial centres, 164 ; estab- 
lishments, number of, 426 

Ingersoll, 375 

Inland Waterways Commission, 
The, 369 

Inspection and Sale Act (1906), 
The, 392, 402 

Divisions, Eastern and 

Western, 392 

Inter-colonial Railway, The, its 
construction, 60 

Intermediate Tariff, 274 ; benefit 
of, 278 

International Monetary Confer- 
ence, 267 

Typographical Union, 162 ; 

Annual Convention of, 166 ; 
result of, 166 

Iron, 415 418; output of, 430; 

Pyrites, 424 [366 

Isle de la Crosse, 101 ; d'Orleans, 

Japan and the Pacific Ocean, 353 

Jay, Mr., 107 

Jesuits, treatment of, 19 

Jette, Sir Louis, 119 

Johnson, Sir William, 16 

Mr., 400 

Jones, Jonas, 34 
Jury, A. F., 117 

Kam LOOPS, 416 

Keefer, T. C. 373 

Keewatin, Territory of, 98 ; 
elevators at, 335 ; fishing in- 
dustry of, 434 

Kennedy, Captain, 55 

Kenora, elevators at, 335 

Keweena Point, 411 

Kannaghunut Island, 121 

444 



King, Dr., 118 

Kiphng, Rudyard, 361 

Klondike, 407 

Knights of Labour, first assem- 
bly of, 162 ; foundation of, 172 ; 
provisions of, 173 sqq. 

Kootenay, fruit growing at, 401 

River, 376 



Labour, 169 ; Parliamentary 
representation of, 170 ; bene- 
ficial influence of organised, 176; 
Minister of, 210 

Congress, resolutions passed 

at, 165 

Legislation, Acts passed by, 

174, 175 ; measures obtained 
by, 176 

Movement, beginning of 

national, 164 

Organisations, 162 ; Char- 
tered Unions, 163; Toronto 
Trades Assembly, 166 ; ne- 
cessity for organisation, 167 

Party, Motto and Object of, 

167 ; elections of, 171 ; present 
demands of, 171 

Labrador, annexed to Quebec, 

22 ; 97, 98 
La Barre, 7 
La Cadie, 3 
Lac la Biche, 101 
Lachine, Massacre of, 8 ; Canal, 

339 
Lake Huron, 336, 412 

Manitoba Railway and 

Canal Co., 319, 320 

Michigan, area of, 334 

of the Woods, 409 

Superior, 314, 320, 346, 409 ; 

area of, 334 

Laurier, Sir Wilfrid, on annexa- 
tion, 129; 243, 344; on Cana- 
dian chmate, 361 

Laval University, 219 

Lawrence, Governor, 12 

Lawrence, St., 2, 12, 21, 41, 301 
334 ; means of crossing, 307 
deepening of channel, 340 
source of, 346 

Lead, total production of, 43 

Le Moyne d'Iberville, 7 

Lee, General, 51 

Lethbridge, 79, 84 



INDEX 



Letters posted in 1910, 349 ; 
reduction of rate within Cana- 
dian borders, 350 

Lieutenant-Governor, The, 190 

Lincohi, President, assassinated, 
51 

Liverpool, 393 

Lodge, Senator, 120 

London, 374 

Lord Stanley's Act (1843), 41 

Loudoun, Earl of, 14 

Louis XIV, 5 

Louisberg, Fort at, 10 ; captain of, 
15 

Loyalist Immigration, 141 

Lumber Industry, 429 

Lundy's Lane, 29 

Lynn Canal, 11 8, 119 



Macdonald, Sir John, 47 ; Sir 
WilUam, 284, 298; as edu- 
cationalist, 285 sq. 

Machillimackinac, Strait of, 9 

Mackenzie, William Lyon, 34 ; 

, Hon. A., on annexation, 127 

, Sir Wilham, 322, 333 

Mackinac, 1 1 

Macoun, Dr.,^92, 364 

Magdalen Island, 22 

Magnesite, 425 

Manganese, 418 

Manufacturing Industries, 426 ; 
Associations, 432, 433 

Marble Bay, 411 

Marine Biological Stations, 435 ; 
Marine and Fisheries, Ministry 
of, 205 

Maritime Provinces, The, 367 

Manitoba, Province formed, 54 ; 
described, 69 sqq. ; Convention, 
72 ; Provincial University, 74 ; 
Franchise in, 216; sessional 
indemnity, 324 ; Colleges affiih- 
ated to University of, 300 ; 
growing importance of, 300 ; 
agricultural products of, 377, 
393; Grain Act, 396 ; 292. 
319, 320, 323, 335, 393, 423 

, Lake, 358 

Matapedia, Valley of, 367 

Matthew, The Ship, 1 

McDougall, Mr., 67 

McGill University, 297 sq. 



McMaster University, 299 

Mechanics, Lien Law, 174 ; 
Institutes, 289 

MedicineHat, 84. 317, 421 

Mercury, 419 

Metcalf, Lord, Governor-General, 
38 

Methodist Ministers, recognition 
of, 33 

Mica, 423 ; Mines, 424 

Michigan, Lake, 358, see Lake 
sup. 

Midland Railway, 306 

Military College, Royal, 246 

Militia and Defence, Minister of. 
208 ; history of, 242 sqq. 

Mines, Department of, 406 

Minimum Wage, 176 

Ministry of Finance. 207 ; Jus- 
tice, 206 ; Marine, etc., 208 
Militia, etc., 208; Interior, 209 
Pubhc Works, 209 ; Trade. 210 
Labour, 210 

Miquelon, 19 

Miramichi, 15, 367 

Missions, Christian, 150 

Mississippi, 9, 359 

Mixed Farming, 383 

Mobile, 11 

Molybdenite, 419 

Monck, Lord, 189 

Moncton, 329 

Mond Nickel Company. 414 

Montcalm, 14, 17 

Montgomery, General, 23 

Montmorency, Falls of, 366, 373 

Montreal, importance of, 178 ; 
railway centre, 178 ; churches. 
179 ; interest of, 179 ; Bank of. 
258. 301. 316, 332, 339, 373 

Moose Jaw. 76. 78 

Morden and N.W. Railway. 322 

Mulock, Sir William, 350 

Murray, General, 17, 21, 22 

Bay, 366 

Muskoka District, 367 

Muzon, Cape, 120 

National Records, 403 ; Trans- 
continental Railway, 346 
Nations, The five, 5 
Navigable Rivers, 345 
Navigation, system of. 346 



445 



INDEX 



Navy, The, 254 ; Defence Bill, 

255 sq. 
Neilson, John, 34 
Nelson, Dr. Wolfred, 34, 35, 37 

River, 358 

New Brunswick, 24, 393, 412, 415, 
418, 425 ; early government of, 
202 ; Crown Lands in, 240 ; 
Currency in, 267 ; Southern 
Railway, 318 

New Caledonia, 54 

England, 22 

France, 5 

— — Hamburg, 375 

Ontario, 91 

— — Orleans, 29 
Currency Act, 268 

Zealand and " All Red " 

Steamships, 353, 356 

Newfoundland, 9, 43 

Nicola Valley, 420 

Nickel, 412, 414, 415 

Niagara, Fort, 16; Falls, 329, 
366, 374, 393, 412, 417, 431 ; 
River, 367 

Nipigon, River, 376 

North American Telegraph 
Company, 352 

North-West Company, 7 ; found- 
ing of, 63, 64 

Territories 54, 67, 373, 

374 

Norway House, 99 

Nova Scotia, 3, 10, 12 ; provincial 
government in 1713, 202 ; 
Crown Lands in, 240 ; currency, 
267 ; education, 281 ; Mac- 
donald centres in, 286 ; agri- 
cultural college, 291 ; dairy 
products, 383 ; gold-bearing 
rocks, 409 ; Coal production, 
421 ; fisheries, 434 

Oat Crops, 378 

O'Donoghue, D. J., first Labour 
representative, 170 

Ogilvie Flour Mills Co., 335 

Ohio, The, 11, 21 

Okanagan Valley, 401 

Omineca District, 410 

Ontario. Lake, 14, 180, 181, 
358, 359 ; Province described, 
87 sqq. ; currency, 267 ; com- 
pulsory education, 281 ; 



Ontario — {cont.) 

agricultural college, 288 ; iron 
ore deposits, 328 ; fruit culture, 
390 ; silver ores, 410 ; copper 
mines, 411 ; salt production, 
423 ; fisheries, 434 ; chmate 
described, 362 ; other references 
to, 323, 326, 373, 376, 393, 408, 
412, 417, 420, 422, 432 

, New, 362 

Power Company, The, 374 , sq. 

Oswald, Richard, 107 

Oswego, Fort, 14 

Ottawa, 53, 165, 182, 183 ; Royal 
Mint, 268 ; University, 299 ; 
River, 358, 367, 376 ; ex- 
perimental farming, 389 

" Our Lady of the Snows," 361 

Ozark Mountains, The, 359 

Pacific Ocean and " All Red " 
Steamships, 353 

Packing Fruit, Method of, 404 

Page, General, 21 

Paper Trade, 432 

Papineau, Mr., 31, 34; sentenced 
to transportation, 37 

Paris, Treaty of, 19, 20 

Parliament, Labour representa- 
tives in, 171 ; Departments of 
State, 206 ; Prime Minister 
206 ; Minister of Justice, 206 
Department of Finance, 207 
Minister of Agriculture, 207 
Secretary of State, 208 ; other 
ministerial of&ces, 209, 210 ; 
The Cabinet, 210 ; conventions 
binding, 211 ; appointment of 
senators, 212 ; The Speaker, 
213 ; House of Commons, 213 ; 
its membership, 213 ; The 
Dominion Franchise, 214 ; 
The Sergeant-at-Arms, 217 ; 
dissolution of, 218 ; method of 
voting, 218 ; Oath of Alle- 
giance, 219 ; strict laws for 
prevention of bribery, 219 ; 
powers of local government, 
220 ; payment of members, 
223 ; sessional indemnity, 224 

Passamaquoddy Bay, 3 

Patterson, Governor, 22 

Peace River, The, 358 

Territory, 100 sqq.; 103 



446 



INDEX 



Pennsylvania, 21 

Pepperell, Colonel, besieges 
Louisburg, 10 

Petroleum and natural gases, 421 

Phips, Sir William, 8 

Pig iron, output of, 430 

Pitt, William. Earl of Chatham, 
15,23 

Platinum, 419 

Pontgrave, 3 

Pontiac's War, 21 

Population, increase of, 168 

Port Arthur, 320, 327 ; grain 
exports of, 335 ; wheat ele- 
vators, 393, 394 

Hope, 307 

Huron, 309. 311 

Union, 307 

Portage la Loche. 99 

Prairie, 74 

Portland Canal, 120 

Cement, production of, 432 

(Oregon) Exhibition, 80 

Postal Service ; Offices, number of, 

349 ; revenue and expenditure, 

349 ; postal rates, 349 ; Savings 
Bank, 349 ; Canada admitted to 
Postal Union, 350; rate lowered, 

350 ; rates between Canada and 
U.S.A., 351 ; improvements, 351 

Prairie Provinces, The, described, 
85 sqq., 359, 360; climate, 363; 
scenery, 365 

Preston, 374 

Prideaux, General, 16 

Prince Albert, 78 ; C.P. Railway 
in, 325 

Edward Island, 15 ; early 

administration of. 203 ; 241, 
393 

Rupert's Land, 6 

Printing Trade, 432 
Provincial Lands, 241 

Legislature, 220 sqq. 

Workmen's Association, 164 

PubUc Lands, Division of, 227 

Works, Ministry of, 209 

Purchased Homesteads, entry for. 

235 ; payment for. 236 
Putman, Hon. William, L., 116 

Qu'Appelle River, 74 
Quebec, founding of, 3 ; assault of, 
8, 10. 16; siege, 17; province 



Quebec — {cont.) 

dehmited, 20 ; described, 137 
sqq. ; Act, 22, 199 ; French 
characteristics, 179; Sessional 
indemnity in, 224 ; Crown 
Lands in, 240 ; currency in, 
267 ; Macdonald College at, 
292 ; climate of, 362 ; gold 
dredging in, 408 ; silver found 
in. 410 ; other references to, 328, 
332, 366, 373, 393, 412, 415, 
417. 420, 425, 428, 431 

Queen Victoria Niagara Falls 
Park, 367 

Queen's College University, 298 

Queenstown, defeat of Americans 
at, 29 

Railway Era, The, 58-61 ; 

Railways, Act relating to, 301 
anialgamations, 301, 305 
Atlantic and St. Lawrence, 302 
Grand Trunk Arrangements 
Act (1862), 303; consohdation 
of six lines, 306 ; Canadian 
Pacific, 312 ; Ministry of, 322 ; 
Grand Trunk Pacific, 329 

Rainy Lake, 409 

Rebellion Losses Bill, 42 

Reciprocity Treatv (1854), 41 ; 
abrogated (1866), 47; 52, 114 

" Red Fife " Wheat, 379 

Red River Settlement, 64 5^. 
347, 358, 359 

Regina, Agricultural Department 
at, 77, 393 

Renfrew, 424 

Reserves, 146 

Restigouche Valley, 367 

" Returned Canadians," 135 

Reversible Falls, The, 184 

Richeheu, Cardinal, 4 ; River, 
358 

Rideau Canal, 341 

Riding Mountains, 70 

Riviere du Loup, 366 

Robertson, Dr. J. W., 284 sq. 

Roberval, Sieur de, 2 

Robinson, Beverley, Chief Justice, 
34 

Roche, Marquis de la, 2 

Rock Lake, 412 

Rocky Mountains, The, 58, 312, 
314, 315, 358, 360, 365, 371 



447 



INDEX 



Rockingham Administration, The, 

106 
Rodney, Lord, defeats French 

Fleet, 108 
Rondeau Provincial Park, 367 
Root, Senator, 120 
Ross, General, 29 
Rossland, 411 
Royal, Mount, 178 
Military College, 246 ; N.W. 

Mounted Police, 247-254 
Rural education, 284 sqq. 
Russell, Lord John, and Canadian 

politics, 32 
Russian Treaty (1825), 115 
Ryerson, Egerton, 34 



Sable Island, 2 
Saguenay River, 357, 366 
St. Clair Tunnel, 311 sqq.; 
river, 423 

— Croix, 3 

— Eugene Lead Mine, 413 

— John, Port of, 2, 184 ; River, 
16, 307, 332, 347, 358. 374 ; 
Lake, 358 

— Lawrence, see Lawrence, St., 
sup. 

— Mary, River, 336 

— Maurice, River, 358, 373 

— Peter's Canal, 341 

— Pierre, 19 

— Thomas, 374 

Salmon, Canning industry, 428 ; 

fishing, 437 
Salt industry, 422 
San Francisco, 356 
Saratoga, Burgoyne defeated at, 

24 
Samia, 311 
Saskatchewan, 70, 216, 319, 323, 

335, 37 1 . 373, 377, 407, 420, 428 ; 

River, fort on, 64 ; district 

described, 74 sqq. ; 347. 358, 
360, 371 
Saskatoon, 78 
Sault Ste Marie, 11, 336, 376; 

Canal, 417 
Secretary of State, duties of, 208 
Seed-Growers' Association, 286 
Seigniors, The, 39. 137 sqq. 
Selkirk, Lord, 64 ; Range, 359, 

365 



Semple, Governor, 64 

School Lands, administration of, 

238, sq. 
Schools for Indians, 150 
Senators, appointment of, 212 
Shawinigan Falls, The, 373 
Sheep, total number of, 385 ; 

enterprise in farming, 386 
" Sheet Price," 395 
Shelbume, Lord, 106 
Shirley, Governor, 10, 12 
Shoal, Lake, 409 
Sifton, The Hon. CUfiord, 370, 

372 
Silver, 409 

Simcoe, Lieut.-Govemor, 26 
Sitclan Island, 121 
Smith, Goldwin, 126 
Social Life, 152, sqq. 
Sociahsm, little likelihood of, 169 
" Soo " Line, 74, 76 
South Kootenay Pass, 421 
Spanish River, 376 

Succession, War of, 9 

Sport, 160 

Spray River, The, 366 

Stadacona (Quebec), 2 

Stanley Park, 187 

State, Departments of, 206 

Steel, total output, 430, 431 

Stevenson, Robert, 59 

Stewart River, 407 

Strachan, John, first Bishop of 
Upper Canada, 34 

Strachey, Sir Henry, 112 

Stratford, 374 

Strathcona, seat of Alberta 
University, 84 ; thriving busi- 
ness centre, 86 

Trust, objects of, 246 

Strathcona, Lord, Governor of 

Hudson's Bay Co., 68, 124, 

298 
Sulpician Order, treatment of, 

19 
Summit Range, The, 360 
Superior, Lake, 20, 314, 320, 346, 

358, 373, 409; dimensions of, 

334 
Sydney, 355, 356 



Tadousac, 366 
Tariff, The, 43, 45 



448 



INDEX 



Telegraph Sj'^stems, 352 

Telephone System, Government, 
155 

Temiskaming and N. Ontario 
Railway, 352 

Templeton, 424 

Texada Island, 414 

Thirty Thousand Islands, The, 367 

Thompson, David, discovers and 
names Thompson River, 63 

, Sir John, on annexation, 128 

Thomson, Poulett, Lord Syden- 
ham, Governor-General, 38 

Thousand Islands, The, 367 

Three Rivers, District of, 21 

Ticonderoga, 1 5 

Tin, 419 

Toronto, capital of Upper Canada, 
27 ; captured by Americans, 29 ; 
Labour Assemblies, 164 ; Trades 
Assembly, 166 ; centre of 
British-Canadian influence, 180 
building enterprise, 181 
educational centre, 181 
Canadian Pacific Railway, 325 
88, 374 

and Nipissing Railway, 306 

- and Ottawa Railway, 306 

, University of, 295-297 

Townshend, Lord, 1 10 

" Track Price," 395 
Trade and Commerce, Ministry of, 
duties and powers of, 210 

and Labour Congress, 167 

Trades Assembly, failure of, 116 
Transformer Stations, 374 
Transmission Lines, 374 
Transportation, question of, 346 
Trent affair. The, 60 ; Canal, 341 
Tundra region, The, 360 
Tupper, Sir Charles, 53, 116; on 

annexation, 129 
Turner, Senator, 120 
Tyng, Captain, 10 



Ungava, 96 sqq. 
Union Act, The, result of, 201 
Unionism, spread of, 162 
United Empire LoyaUsts, 25, 

144, 199 
States, Declaration of War, 

27 ; importance of Pacific Ocean 

to, 353 



United Wage Earners, 163 
Universities, two principal, 295 
Utrecht, Treaty of, 9 

Vancouver, picturesqueness of, 
187; developed trade, 187; 331 

Island, 54-56 ; climate, 92 ; 

414, 416, 420 

Vaudreuil, Governor, 16, 18 
Vergennes, M. de, 112 
VermiUon, 327 
Victoria, Bridge, 59. 309-311 

City, its value as a port, 188 ; 

Railway, 306; University, 297 

Virginia, II, 21 

Vologda, Province, a comparison, 
104 

Wabash Railroad, 317 

Wages for Labour, 168 

Walker, Sir Hovenden, 9 

Washington, taking of, 29 ; 
Treaty (1871), 115 

Water, transport, 346 ; Ways, 
System of, 338 ; powers, 372- 
376 

Waterloo, 375 

Welland Canal, 340 

West Kootenay, 408, 410 

Western, Company, 11 ; federa- 
tion of Miners, 164 ; Union 
Company, 352 

Weybum, 76 

Wheat, yield of, 70 ; cost of 
raising, 70 ; productiveness in, 
377 ; " Alberta Red," 378 ; 
percentage of supply, 380 ; 
total crops, 381 ; elevators, 393 
sq. ; inspection of, 394 ; 
Manitoba Grain Act, 394 

Whitby, Port Perry and Lindsey 
Railway, 306 

WilUam Henry, Fort, 14 

Wilson, Inspector, on Blood 
Indians, 149 

Winnipeg, Dairy School at, 7 
development of, 73 sq., 184 
as educational centre, 185 
improvements in, 185 ; Mani- 
toba College at, 292 ; Great 
Northern Railway of, 320; 
317, 322, 325, 329, 332, 358, 
376. 393, 394 ; Lake, 69. 358 



449 



INDEX 



Winnipegosis, Lake, 69, 358 
Wolfe, General, 15 ; takes Quebec, 

17 
Woman, The Canadian, 159 
Woodland Belt, 359 
Woods, Lake of the, 358 
Woodstock, 374 
Workman's Compensation Act, 

174 
Works, Ministry of, 344 



Yellow Cross, 76 

Yoho VaUey, The, 366 

Yukon, Gold mining at, 
406, 408; Gold ConsoUdated 
Company, 406 ; River, 358, 
373 



Zavitz, Professor, 291 
Zinc. 413 sq. 



THE END 



Press of Isaac Pitman & Sons, Bath, England. 
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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



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